



w% 

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The Indispensable Fireman. 












Standard 

Mechanical Examinations 

on 

Locomotive Firing and Running 


Being the Progressive Examinations for the First, Second, and 
Third Years, which were Adopted as Standard by the 
Traveling Engineers* Association. With An¬ 
swers by W. G. Wallace. Together with 
Much Valuable Information 
for Locomotive 
Enginemen 


> > 
i ) 

) > j 


* 


Illustrated 



FREDERICK j. DRAKE & CO., Publishers 

CHICAGO 

1 9°7 




library of congress 
TwoCsoy Received 

NOV 14 |90? 

Cepyrlynt Entry . 

da ^ ' t > u 

CUSS A XXCi No. 

/S~S 7 sj 

COPY 8. 


TJ 6 

.V^z- 


Copyright 1906 
By Frederick J. Prior 
Chicago 














PREFACE 


The Traveling Engineer’s Association adopted the fol¬ 
lowing questions as Standard for the Mechanical Exami¬ 
nation of Locomotive Firemen for promotion, with a 
view to each road using questions applicable to its own 
service. 

Firemen should learn the principle of each question, 
should understand why it is asked, instead of learning the 
answer without having a proper and clear understanding 
of it. By knowing the principle of the question it will 
be easy to demonstrate to the examiner a thorough mas¬ 
tery of the subject and a higher rating will follow. 

Written answers to questions may be perfectly cor¬ 
rect, yet if answers given to the oral or verbal questions 
disclose a lack of knowledge of the subjects and show 
ignorance of the principles—or in other words, of the 
“whys” and the “wherefores”—examiners are justified 
in marking a failure. 

Oral questions are asked to determine whether or not 
firemen have the necessary understanding of the subject. 
Therefore, notwithstanding the answers which follow 
are designed to aid students in gaining a knowledge of 
the principles and a clear understanding of the ques¬ 
tions, we cannot too strongly urge the necessity of 
making a more thorough study of the principles of loco¬ 
motive engineering. The explanations and instructions 
therein contained, together with the student’s observa¬ 
tion and practical experience, will render comparatively 
easy a complete mastery of the questions and answers 
which follow. 


5 


The Automatic Air-Brake is fully treated in this vol¬ 
ume and besides fully describing the construction and 
principles of the operation of the Westinghouse, New 
York, and Dukesmith Systems, it contains examination 
questions and answers, including a full treatise with 
questions and answers on the latest Westinghouse E. T. 
Equipment. 

Supplementary information covering the most recent 
progress in Air-Brake art, and including a description of 
the New York B 2 -HS equipment, is given in the present 
volume. 





6 












A Ten-Wheel Freight Locomotive. 























MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS 

First Year 

Giving Answers to Questions Adopted by the Traveling 
Engineers’ Association, First Year 
Mechanical Examination. 

Question i. What are a fireman’s duties on arrival 
at round-house previous to going out on a locomotive ? 

Answer. Arrive in ample time to get ready for the 
trip, examine the bulletin board for new bulletins. On 
reaching the cab note condition of fire in fire-box and the 
level of water in boiler. Dust out cab. Wipe off the 
boiler-head. Sweep off deck and clean coal out of gang¬ 
way. See that oil cans, cab lamps and markers are clean 
and ready for use, and lighted if at night. The ash-pan 
clean and grates straight and see that they can be 
shaken and left straight. Know that engine is sup¬ 
plied with the necessary firing tools and sufficient coal, 
water, sand, oil and other supplies to meet the require¬ 
ments of the trip. Display proper signals. 

Question 2. What pressure is indicated by the 
steam gauge? What is meant by atmospheric pressure? 

Answer. The pressure in pounds per square inch on 
the inside of the boiler. Atmospheric pressure is the 
pressure of the weight of the air on tl>e earth’s surface, 
which at sea level is 14.7 pounds per square inch. This 
pressure increases below sea level and decreases above 
sea level in high altitudes, sometimes noticeable in the 
working of injectors on locomotives engaged in moun¬ 
tain service. 


9 


10 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—FIRST YEAR 


Question 3. What is the source of power in a 
steam locomotive? What quantity of water ought to be 
evaporated in a locomotive boiler to the pound of coal ? 

Answer. Heat units contained in the fuel are the 
source of power. Heat is absorbed by the water in the 
boiler, generating steam which is converted into work 
by the locomotive. A heat unit is a quantity of heat 
that will raise the temperature of one pound of water 
one degree. The quantity of water evaporated per 
pound of coal in a locomotive boiler depends upon the 
quality of the coal, the efficiency of the boiler and class 
of service. Usually six to eight pounds of water is 
evaporated per pound of coal in service. 

Question 4. What is steam and how is it gener¬ 
ated? 

Answer. Steam is water changed to a gas by the con¬ 
tinued application of heat and is generated bv raising the 
temperature of the water above the boiling point. 

Question 5. At what temperature does water boil? 

Answer. Two hundred twelve (212) degrees at sea 
level. 

Question 6. What is the temperature of water in 
a boiler when the pressure is 200 pounds? 

Answer. At 200 pounds pressure the temperature of 
steam is 387.7 degrees. 

Question 7. What is combustion? 

Anszver. A chemical combination resulting in heat 
and light, or the uniting with oxygen of any combustible 
matter heated to its igniting temperature. 

Question 8. What is the composition of bitumin¬ 
ous coal? 


MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—FIRST YEAR 11 


Answer. Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Sul¬ 
phur and ash; carbon about 80%, Hydrogen about 5%, 
and the remaining 15% waste or non-combustible. The 
percentage of each element varies with different quali¬ 
ties of coal. 

Question 9. What is carbon? From what is oxy¬ 
gen obtained? 

Answer. Carbon is a chemical element and consti¬ 
tutes the chief portion of all fuel. Oxygen is*obtained 
from the atmosphere. 

Question 10. What per cent of oxygen is in the 
atmosphere ? 

Answer. From 20 to 23 per cent. 

Question 11. Is air necessary for combustion? Why? 

Answer. Air is necessary and must be supplied to 
introduce sufficient oxygen into the fire-box to maintain 
combustion; without oxygen fuel would not burn. 
(Note: Try an oil stove in a closed room for an ex¬ 
ample.) 

Question 12. How many cubic feet of air is neces¬ 
sary for the combustion of a pound of coal in a loco¬ 
motive fire-box? 

Answer. About 200 to 250 cubic feet of air per 
pound of coal is required to supply oxygen to the fire 
for proper combustion. 

Question 13. What is the effect upon combustion if 
too little air is supplied through the fire? If too much 
air is supplied? 

Answer. If sufficient air is not supplied the com¬ 
bustible gases escape unconsumed through the flues and 


12 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—FIRST YEAR 


stack which means a loss of fuel. If too much air is 
admitted the fire-box sheets and flues are cooled and the 
temperature of the water and steam in the boiler is 
reduced; the expansion and contraction produce leaks 
in flues and staybolts, and fuel is wasted by the tempera¬ 
ture of the gases being reduced below the igniting 
point. 

Question 14. What effect on combustion has the 
closing and opening of dampers? 

Answer. Opening the dampers aids combustion by 
admitting air and.oxygen. Closing the dampers ex¬ 
cludes air and oxygen from the fire and retards com¬ 
bustion. 

Question 15. How is a draft created through the 
fire? 

Answer. When the locomotive is at rest the draft is 
created by reason of the difference in the atmospheric 
pressure at the fire and the top of the smoke stack; the 
heated air and gases being lighter than the air, escape 
through the flues and stack to the atmosphere. This is 
known as natural draft. When the engine is working the 
exhaust steam from the cylinders passes up through the 
stack producing a partial vacuum in the front end; air 
rushing in through the grates and flues to fill this 
vacuum creates a draft on the fire. At other times a 
forced draft is obtained by the use of a blower. 

Question 16. Describe a blower, its use and abuse? 

Answer. A blower consists of a pipe extending from 
the dome or steam turret on the boiler-head to the 
smoke-box and directed upward nearly in line with the 
exhaust-pipe and stack, equipped with a valve in the 


MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—FIRST YEAR 13 


cab within convenient reach of the fireman. When the 
valve is opened steam enters the pipe and escapes from 
the open end through the stack to the atmosphere pro¬ 
ducing a draft on the fire on the principle of induced 
currents. Its use is to create a draft on the fire when 
the engine is not working. Its abuse is to use it more 
than necessary when cleaning or raking fires at terminals 
or at times when the fire-door is open or a light fire 
on the grate. If used too freely under above conditions 
cold air is drawn into the fire-box and flues which 
causes them to contract and leak. 

Question 17. What good and bad effect is produced 
by opening the fire-door when engine is being worked? 

Answer. The good effect is that black smoke may 
be reduced and the opening of the pop valves prevented. 
The bad effect is fire-box and flues are chilled by the 
cold air which reduces the temperature. The flues being 
much lighter than the flue sheet, contraction takes place 
more rapidly and soon causes them to become loose in 
the sheet and leak. It is also a waste of fuel. 

Question 18. In what condition therefore should the 
fire be, in order that the best results may be obtained ? 

Answer. The fire should be built up properly for 
the anticipated service the engine is to perform, and al¬ 
lowed to burn down approaching summits of grades and 
shutting-off places if time will permit. Fire should be 
maintained at uniform thickness and free from clinkers 
if possible, using no more fuel than necessary to keep 
a uniform pressure on boiler. 

Question 19. What effect has the fire upon a scoop¬ 
ful of coal when it is placed in the fire-box? 

Answer. When a scoopful of coal is placed in the fire 


14 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—FIRST YEAR 


it absorbs heat and the gases are driven off or liberated 
which mix very quickly with the air in the fire-box and 
if at the igniting temperature produce as near perfect 
combustion as is obtainable. 

Question 20. What is the effect of putting too many 
scoops of coal on a bright fire? Is this a waste of fuel? 

Anszver. The effect is the more coal placed on the 
fire at one time, the more the temperature of the fire¬ 
box is reduced which brings it beloNv the igniting tem¬ 
perature of the gases, and the large volume of gases 
liberated in this irregular manner are not mixed with 
the air in the fire-box, but are drawn through the flues 
unconsumed, causing expansion and contraction of the 
fire-box and sheets and increasing the amount of black 
smoke. It is a waste of fuel and causes the fire to be¬ 
come clinkered or dirty very quickly and leaky flues re¬ 
sult. 

Question 21. In what condition should the fire be to 
consume the gases? 

Anszver. The fire should be kept burning brightly 
at as high and even a temperature as possible. 

Question 22. What is the temperature of the fire 
when in this condition? 

Anszver. From 2,000 to 2,500 degrees, as the igniting 
temperature of the gases is about 1,800 degrees. I would 
aim to keep the fire as bright as possible. 

Question 23. How can the fire be maintained in this 
condition ? 

Anszver. By putting in a small quantity of fuel at 
a time, firing light and often. 


MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—FIRST YEAR 15 


Question 24. What is black smoke? Is it com¬ 
bustible ? 

Answer. Black smoke is a mixture of gases and 
carbon, the greater part of which is carbon, and is com¬ 
bustible. But in locomotive service it cannot be con¬ 
sumed after it is formed. 

Question 25. How can black smoke be avoided? 

Answer. By firing light and often with an engine in 
good condition and properly drafted, a fair grade of 
coal, and the engineer and fireman working in harmony, 
unnecessary black smoke may be avoided. 

Question 26. Have you made an effort to practice 
the smokeless method of firing? What results? 

Answer. T have tried it and on some locomotives and 
under certain conditions made a success. But failed on 
other engines and runs when conditions were adverse. 

Question 27. Can the firing be done more intelligent¬ 
ly if the water level is observed closely? Why? 

Answer. By watching the water level closely the fire¬ 
man can anticipate the amount of water necessary for 
the boiler supply and fire accordingly, allow the fire to 
burn, and prevent coal being wasted bv open pop valves, 
in case the water level is at its maximum height prior 
to closing the throttle for a station stop or descending 
a grade. 

Question 28. What advantage is it to the fireman to 
know the grades of the road and location of stations? 

Answer. The fireman should know the road in order 
to fire in an economical manner. When familiar with 
the road and the work of the run he can prepare the 
fire sufficiently in advance of the work the engine is 


16 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—FIRST YE 

to perform and thereby carry a more uniform p 
on the boiler, making the work of firing mud 
and save coal. Without knowing the road its al, 
to him, and he fires in fear of a hard pull wh 
engine is working light, much coal will be r 
necessarily. 

Question 29. What is the purpose of a safe! 
on a locomotive boiler? Why are more than one 

Answer . The purpose of a safety valve on a 
tive boiler is to relieve the boiler of pressure ab< 
which the boiler is designed to carry. On ligh 
the second safety valve is for the purpose of r 
the boiler in case one pop valve becomes defe 
inoperative. On boilers with large grate area, 
valve will not provide sufficient opening to rel 
pressure at all times, therefore three or more va 
used. 

Question 30. What should be done to prevei 
of steam through the safety valve? 

Answer. Prevent waste from this cause as 
possible by close attention to firing, dropping . 
and putting on heaters or injector if shut off ai 
for water. If working would increase boiler fe< 
door on latch, or put in a scoop of coal if fire 
for it. Would use my best judgment in this to 
waste of steam. 

Question 31. What is the estimated waste 
for each minute the safety valve is open? 

Answer. Fifteen pounds per minute, but wi 

pops and high pressure it sometimes excee 
amount. 


[ANICAL EXAMINATIONS—FIRST YEAR 17 


i 32. What should be the condition of the 
■iving at a station where stop is to be made? 

Fire should be burned to a condition that 
se no waste of steam from the pop valves, or 
ce if possible to avoid it. 

■1 33. How should you build up the fire when 
>, in order to avoid black smoke? 

. Have^ the coal well broken and fire as little 
as conditions permit, using the blower, fire 
dampers to prevent black smoke. 

n 34. What should be the condition of the 
passing over the summit of a long grade? 

It should be burned down the same as for 
stop. 

n 35. If the injector is to be used after 
shut off, how should the fire be maintained. 

. The fire should be kept burning brightly; 
r if necessary to keep fire bright and boiler at 
nperature. 

n 36. What would be the result of starting 
rain with too thin a fire on the grates? 

. The coal would be lifted from the grates 
formed in the fire, admitting cold air which 
luce the fire box temperature and cause a 
ding reduction of the boiler pressure. Avoid 
seping fire at proper thickness on grates for 
to be done at all times. 

n 37. Where, as a rule, should the coal be 
the fire-box? 


18 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—FIRST YEAR 

’ 4 

Answer. Coal should be scattered as evenly as pos¬ 
sible over the grate surface if the engine is drafted to 
burn the fire evenly, taking care to keep the sides and 
corners of the grate covered slightly heavier than the 
center. Would close fire-door after putting in each 
shovelful of coal when engine is working. 

Question 38. When and for what purpose is the use 
of a rake on the fire bed allowable? 

Answer. The rake should be used whenever neces¬ 
sary to level the fire. Its frequent use is evidence of a 
lack of care and skill in placing the coal properly on 
the grate surface. 

Question 39. Within what limits may steam pres¬ 
sure be allowed to vary? Why? 

Answer. Five pounds is a reasonable limit of varia¬ 
tion when engine is working. At shutting off places, 
the variation will necessarily he greater to prevent 
popping. The pressure on the boiler should be kept as 
uniform as possible to avoid leaky flues and stay-bolts. 

Question 40. Has improper firing any tendency to 
cause tubes to leak? How? 

Answer. It has. Allowing the fire to become too 
thin or to get holes in it, or reducing the temperature 
of the fire-box bv leaving the door open while putting 
in coal, placing too much coal in the fire-box at one time, 
using the blower too strongly with door open, or with¬ 
out sufficient fire on the grate; doing any of these things 
will cause variation in fire-box temperatures producing 
expansion and contraction of tubes and fire-box sheets 
causing them to leak. 

Question 41. What do you consider abuse to a 
boiler? 




MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—FIRST YEAR 19 


Answer. Using blower harder than necessary; firing 
in an indifferent manner; leaving door open while firing 
when engine is working,; holding door wide open to pre¬ 
vent popping; slipping engine from ash-pit to round¬ 
house after fire is banked or knocked out; putting cold 
water in boiler when fire and steam pressure is low; run¬ 
ning the engine with a badly clinkered or dirty fire; 
slugging the firebox with more coal than can be con¬ 
sumed ; banking the fire at one end of the fire-box and 
leaving the other end without being covered, allowing 
cold air to come in contact with fire-box and flues. 

Question 42. How would you take care of a boiler 
with leaky tubes or fire-box? 

Answer. I would maintain the fire as near a uni¬ 
form temperature as possible. Keep the door closed as 
much as possible and use the blower as little as possible, 
firing evenly and with coal well broken. Would not 
work the injector very long at a time when-engine was 
shut off and would keep the fire free from clinker and 
make proper use of dampers. 

Question 43. What are the advantages of an arch in 
the locomotive fire-box ? 

Answer. The advantages of a brick arch in a loco¬ 
motive fire-box are that it retains the ga*ses longer in 
the fire-box, giving a longer time for combustion before 
they are drawn through the flues, also mixes the air 
with the gases better and aids combustion. It prevents, 
in a measure, the cold air which enters the fire-door 
from striking the flues before it is heated and gives a 
more uniform temperature in the fire-box. 

Question 44. Why is it very important that coal 
should be broken so that it will not be larger than an 


20 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—FIRST YEAR 


ordinary sized apple, before being put into the fire-box ? 

Answer. It is necessary to introduce air into the fire¬ 
box as well as fuel to obtain combustion. When the coal 
is broken to about the size of an apple it does not re¬ 
quire as much heat to make it crumble and give off the 
combustible gases. It absorbs the heat more quickly, 
due to the larger surface exposed to the fire and per¬ 
mits a freer flow of air through the grates and fire to 
combine with the gases. Combustion is more rapid, 
less clinker is formed and the fire can be carried at a 
more even thickness on the grates. 

Question 45. When and why should you wet the coal 
on the tender? 

Answer. Would not wet it at all only to keep down 
the dust, unless it was very fine, then would wet it only 
enough to give it weight to prevent its being drawn into 
the flues before consumed. All the water put on the 
coal must be evaporated before the coal will burn, and 
the water generated into steam in the fire-box impairs 
the draft of the boiler. 

Note: The student should study the details of Loco¬ 
motive Engineering contained in our work: “The Art 
of Railroading.” It treats fully and in detail of the 
working of the locomotive, is copiously illustrated and 
serves as a complete course of Home Study on the sub¬ 
ject. 




Atlantic” Passenger Locomotive. 

























MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS 

Second Year 

(jiving Answers to Questions Adopted by the Traveling 
Engineers' Association, Second Year 
Mechanical Examination. 

Question i. W hat, in your opinion, is the best way 
to fire a locomotive ? 

Answer. Arrive at the locomotive on time and have 
everything ready for the trip, build up the fire while 
going to yard for train, having fire ready and the right 
pressure when ready to start. Break lumps to proper 
size, fire light and often, close fire-door as quickly as 
possible after each scoopful of coal is put in fire-box 
when engine is working. Scatter the coal over the grate 
surface evenly, keeping the sides and corners of grates 
well covered and prevent banks or holes being formed 
in the fire. Keep the fire hot when the injector is work¬ 
ing with engine shut off, grates free from ashes and 
clinkers and the ash-pan clean. Would do my best to 
keep a uniform boiler pressure as near the popping 
point as possible without letting her pop. Watch for 
signals at all times when necessary and make myself 
useful in any manner pertaining to the duties of a fire¬ 
man. 

Question 2. What is the cause of the drumming 
noise when engine is shut off? Can and should it be 
avoided? Why? 

Answer. The drumming noise is caused by the hy¬ 
drogen expelled from the coal combining in certain pro- 

23 


24 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—SECOND YEAR 


portions with the oxygen present, forming oxyhydrogen 
gas, an explosive compound which when subjected to 
high temperatures, produces a series of minute explo¬ 
sions in the fire-box. It can and should be avoided by 
dropping a damper and opening fire-door on latch, be¬ 
cause it is very annoying to passengers and the public, 
and interferes with operators reading instruments at 
telegraph stations. 

Question 3. Describe the general form of a locomo¬ 
tive boiler. 

Answer. The general form of a locomotive boiler is 
cylindrical, having a rectangular or square shaped fire¬ 
box at one end and a smoke box at the other with flues 
extending through the cylindrical part from the flue 
sheet in the fire-box to the flue sheet at front end of 
boiler, which with the fire-box and all heating surface, 
is surrounded or exposed to contact with water. 

Question 4. How does the wide fire-box type of 
boiler differ from the ordinary boiler, and what are the 
advantages ? 

Answer. It has a shallow fire-box extending over the 
frames which permits a larger water space on sides of 
fire-box and gives a larger grate surface per square foot 
of heating surface, allowing the advantage of a much 
slower rate of combustion. The slower the rate of com¬ 
bustion the more heat units are absorbed by the water 
and a higher efficiency is obtained from the boiler. 

Question 5. Why have two fire-box doors been 
placed in the large type of locomotive boilers ? 

Answer. As a convenience to the fireman in placing 
coal where wanted on the grates, permitting one side of 
the fire-box to have the fire at its highest temperature 




Fij 1. Boilerwith Crown Bars. 




ILLUSTRATING QUESTIONS 3, 9, 10, 11, AND 12, 


STANDARD MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS. SECOND YEAR. 

























































































































































































' 














































MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—SECOND YEAR 25 


while coal is being - placed on the grates of the other 
side of the fire-box. 

Question 6 . Describe a locomotive fire-box. 

Answer. A rectangular or square shaped box set in 
the end of the boiler so arranged that it may be sur¬ 
rounded or covered with water, and consists of a crown 
sheet, side sheets, door and flue sheet properly secured 
with flues extending from flue sheet to front end, a door 
through which fire may be supplied with fuel, and grates 
for a bottom to carry the fire and admit air for com¬ 
bustion. 

Question J. To what strains is a fire-box subjected? 

Answer. Strains of expansion, contraction and com¬ 
pression due to the variations of temperature and the 
pressure of the boiler which tends to crush it. 

Question 8 . How are the sheets of a fire-box sup¬ 
ported ? 

Answer. Side and end sheets are supported by stay- 
bolts screwed and riveted through both inside and out¬ 
side sheets. Crown sheet by crown bars with ends rest¬ 
ing on side sheets or with radial stay-bolts riveted 
through crown sheet and roof sheet of boiler. 

Question g. In what manner is a crown sheet sup¬ 
ported ? 

Answer. By crown bars and radial stays; crown bars 
are connected to the shell of the boiler by sling stays. 

Question io. What are the bad features about crown 
bars? 

Answer. They are heavy, expensive, take up water 
space and make it difficult to keep crown sheet free from 
mud and scale where bad water is used. 


26 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—SECOND YEAR 

Question n. What are the advantages of radial 
stayed crown sheets? 

Answer. They are much cheaper, allow more water 
over the crown sheet and permit more curve in the crown 
sheet, thus facilitating inspection and washing, to pre¬ 
vent the formation of mud and scale on the crown sheet. 

Question 12. How are the inside and outside sheets 
of fire-box secured at the bottom ? 

Answer. They are secured by rivets extending 
through both sheets and the mud ring which forms the 
bottom of the water space. 

Question 13. Describe the ash-pan and its use. 

Answer. An iron pan-shaped box or receptacle fitted 
with dampers or slides under the grates, for the pur¬ 
pose of catching and carrying cinders and ashes which 
fall through the grates; dampers are operated from the 
cab for the purpose of regulating the admission of air 
through the grates. 

Question 14. What is a wagon top boiler? 

Answer. A boiler with the fire-box end larger than 
the cylindrical part. Boilers without wagon tops are 
called straight boilers. 

r ' 1 -.' . 

Question 15. Why are boilers provided with steam 
domes ? 

Anszver. To provide a place for throttle valve and 
pipes leading to steam chests, boiler attachments, whistle, 
air pumps, and to insure the use of drv steam as far as 
possible. 

Question 16. What must be the condition of a boiler 
in order to give the best results ? 


MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—SECOND YEAR 27 


Answer . Should be free from leaks in fire-box and 
flues, flues clean, properly drafted and the inside of boiler 
free from scale and mud to insure a good circulation of 
water. 

Question. 17. What is meant bv “circulation" in a 
boiler? 

Answer. As water absorbs heat it becomes lighter 
and rises to the surface either as hot water or steam, the 
water at a lower temperature coming in contact with 
the heated surface of the boiler, taking the place of that 
evaporated, producing circulation. 

Question 18. What would be the effect if a leg of 
the fire-box became filled with mud? 

Answer, The' mud would prevent the water from 
coming in contact with the fire-box sheets, there would 
be no circulation at that part, and the mud would not 
absorb the heat. The effect would be that the sheet 
would become overheated, bulge and possibly be forced 
off the stay-bolts. 

Question 19. What would be the result if the fire¬ 
box sheets became overheated ? ' 

Answer. They would be forced off the stay-bolts by 
the pressure in the boiler if they were allowed to become 
hot enough to pull through the sheet. 

Question 20. Would it be advisable to put water on 
to a sheet that has become bare and red hot? 

Answer. It would not, as the contraction taking place 
suddenly would be liable to injure the sheets. 

Question 21. What effect has the stoppage of a large 
number of flues ? 


28 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—SECOND YEAR 


Answer. It increases the coal consumption, decreases 
the heating surface and affects the burning of the fire, 
the steaming and efficiency of the engine. 

f 

Question 22. Why are boiler checks placed so far 
away from the fire-box? 

Answer. That the feed water may enter the boiler 
as far as possible from the heating surface and become 
heated to a higher temperature before coming in con¬ 
tact with the hot sheets of the fire-box. 

Question 23. What part of a locomotive boiler has 
the greatest pressure. Why? 

Answer. The bottom part because steam is elastic 
and exerts its pressure evenly in all directions; the bot¬ 
tom of the boiler having to support the weight of the 
water in addition to the steam, has the greatest pressure. 

Question 24. What is the advantage of the extension 
front end? 

Answer. It affords more room for the arrangement 
of draft appliances and their adjustment and a larger 
area of opening in the netting, thus preventing liability 
of throwing fire. 

Question 25. What is the object of hollow stay-bolts? 

Answer. To admit air to the fire, aid combustion and 
detect breakage of bolts, which is indicated by the ap¬ 
pearance of steam and water at the end of fractured 
bolt. 

Question 26. What will cause an engine to tear holes 
in her fire? 

Answer. Too sharp an exhaust, fire too thin, dirty 
or clinkered, working engine hard with dampers closed. 


29 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—SECOND YEAR 


Question 27. Name the various adjustable appliances 
in front end, by which the fire is regulated. 

Answer. The exhaust-nozzle, diaphragm and petti¬ 
coat pipe. 

Question 28. Explain what adjustments can be made 
and the effect of each adjustment on the fire. 

Answer. Exhaust-nozzle, diaphragm, petticoat pipe 
and sleeve. Reducing the size of the exhaust-nozzle 
creates a stronger draft and increases the back pres¬ 
sure in the cylinders, therefore the diameter of exhaust- 
nozzle should be as large as possible consistent with 
steam making. The diaphragm regulates the burning of 
the fire on the grate, and the draft through the flues; 
raising the diaphragm causes more draft through the top 
flues and on the fire in the back end of the fire-box, and 
lowering it causes a stronger draft on the lower flues 
and in the front end of the fire-box. The diaphragm 
should be adjusted to utilize the heating surface of the 
flues and to burn the fire evenly on the grate surface. 

Then if the engine is not sharp enough on her fire, 
raising the lower part of the petticoat pipe above the 
nozzle or lowering the top part of the pipe or sleeve 
from the base of the stack will increase the draft on 
the fire. Raising the sleeve and lowering the pipe will 
decrease the draft on the fire. With a diamond stack 
and short front end the petticoat pipe is used to regu¬ 
late the draft through the flues and on the fire, in the 
same manner as the diaphragm in the extension front end. 
Lowering the sleeve increases the draft through the 
upper flues and raising the sleeve decreases the draft 
through them. Raising the pipe increases the draft 
through the lower flues and lowering it decreases the 


30 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—SECOND YEAR 


draft through the lower flues and on the fire in front 
end of fire box. 

Question 29. What does it indicate when the exhaust 
issues strongest from one side of the stack ? 

Answer. It indicates that the exhaust-pipe, petticoat- 
pipe and stack are not in line or plumb with each other 
and the engine will not steam properly. 

Question 30. What is the effect of leaky steam pipe 
joints inside of smoke box? 

Answer. The partial vacuum formed by the exhaust 
steam passing through the stack will be destroyed and 
the engine will not steam when working, but will im¬ 
mediately get hot when throttle is closed. If the leak 
were great enough it would cause a failure for steam. 

Question 31. What causes a pull on fire-box door? 

Answer. A dirty or clinkered fire, dampers closed, 
or grates without sufficient opening for the admission of 

air. 

Question 32. If, upon opening the fire-box, you dis¬ 
covered there was what is commonly called a red fire, 
what might be the cause? 

Answer. A dull^red fire when the engine is working 
is a sure indication of a leaky steam pipe in front end. 

Question 33. Is it not a waste of fuel to open fire¬ 
box door to prevent pops from opening? How can this 
be prevented more economically? 

Answer. It is a waste of fuel and can be avoided by 
not placing coal in the fire-box so as to make this prac¬ 
tice necessary. It can be prevented more economically 
by increasing the boiler feed or using the injector that 


MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—SECOND YEAR 31 


is not working as a heater to raise the temperature of 
the feed water in the tender, thereby saving heat units 
that would otherwise be wasted. 

Question 34. Describe the principle upon which the 
injectors work. 

Answer. An injector works on the principle of in¬ 
duced currents. A current of any kind tends to induce 
movement in the same direction of any body with which 
it comes in contact. Steam enters the injector at a 
high temperature and with great velocity, coming in 
contact with the cold water which condenses the steam 
and absorbs the heat. A part of its velocity is imparted 
to the water giving it sufficient energy to force the check- 
valve open and enter the boiler against high pressure. 

Question 35. What is the difference between a lift¬ 
ing and a non-lifting injector? 

Answer. A lifting injector is one set above the water 
supply. Steam entering creates a vacuum, and the at¬ 
mospheric pressure on the water in the tender forces it 
into the injector, whence it is forced into the boiler; 
while a non-lifting injector has only the work of forcing 
the water into the boiler, being set below the water level 
it is always filled with water. 

Question 36. Will injector work with a leak between 
injector and tank? Why? Will it prime? 

Answer. Not if the leak is above the water line and 
sufficiently large to destroy the vacuum, because with a 
lifting injector the vacuum is formed and the atmos¬ 
pheric pressure forces the water from the tank to the 
injector; when the leak is large enough to destroy this 
vacuum the injector will not work and will not prime. 


32 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—SECOND YEAR 

Question 37. If it primes good but breaks when 
steam is turned on wide, where would you look for the 
trouble ? 

Answer. Would look for obstruction in combining 
tubes, branch-pipe stopped up, bad leak in the water 
connections, check-valve stuck shut or stop valve on 
check closed if engine was equipped with that kind of 
a check. 

Question 38. If it will not prime, where would you 
expect to find the trouble ? 

Anszver. Would ascertain if had water in tank. Main 
steam valve might be closed, primer valve disconnected, 
water valve closed or stopped up, tank valve discon¬ 
nected, closed, bad leak in siphon pipe or strainer stopped 
up. 

Question 39. Will injector prime if checks leak bad 
or are stuck up? If injector throttle leaks bad? 

Anszver. On a lifting injector these leaks will prevent 
the necessary vacuum from being formed, and prevent 
the flow of water to a non-lifting injector. 

Question 40. If steam or water show at overflow 
pipe when injector is not working, how do you tell 
whether leak is from check or injector throttle? 

Answer. If steam shows at the overflow pipe of the 
injector when the injector is not working, it is the throt¬ 
tle that is leaking. If water and steam, it is the check- 
valve. 

Question 41. Will injector prime if primer valves 
leak? Will it prevent its working? 

Answer. Injector will prime and it will not prevent 
its working. 


MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—SECOND YEAR 33 


Question 42. Will an injector work if air cannot get 
. into tank as fast as water is taken out ? 

Answer. Not for long, but this seldom happens and 
only in cold weather where man-hole cover is frozen 
down air-tight. 

Question 43. Will an injector work if all the steam is 
not condensed by the water? 

Answer. It will not, hence the reason injector fails 
to work when the water is too hot in the tender. 

Question 44. —If you had to take down the tank 

hose, how would you stop the water from flowing out 
of the tank that has the siphon connection instead of 
the old style tank valves? 

Answer. By opening the small cock on top of the 
siphon or taking out the plug provided for this purpose. 

Question 45. Is the water glass safe to run by, if 
the water in the glass is not moving up and down when 
the engine is in motion? 

Answer. No, it is not. This is one of the best indi¬ 
cations that the water glass is stopped up; I would 
always prove the water level by the use of gauge cocks. 

Question 46. Is any more water used when an engine 
foams than when the water is solid? 

Answer. Yes; when the water is foaming in a boiler, 
on account of the water not being solid, small particles 
are carried with the steam into the cylinders, conse¬ 
quently more water is used when an engine is foaming. 

Question 47. Describe the manner in which a sight- 
feed lubricator operates. 


34 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—SECOND YEAR 


Answer. After the lubricator is filled with oil and 
the steam and water valves are opened, steam enters the 
lubricator and is condensed. Water being heavier than 
oil, the oil rises to the top of the oil reservoir and enters 
a tube or pipe leading to the cavity around the regulat¬ 
ing feed-valves under the sight-feed glass and nipple. 

At the same time the steam in the condensing cham¬ 
ber condenses until the level of the water in the con¬ 
densing chamber erjuals the height of the top of the 
equalizing tubes and water flows into the feed-glass and 
the chamber above it, until the water is level with the 
hole in the choke plug. Thus the pressure of steam in 
the equalizing tube and the pressure of steam in the 
main reservoir of the lubricator equalize, and the height 
of the water in the condensing chamber forms a pres¬ 
sure on the oil in the oil cavity equal to its weight in 
height to force the oil through the feed valve when it is 
open, and the buoyancy of the oil (being the lighter) 
causes it to rise to the surface of the water in the cham¬ 
ber above the sight-feed glass level with the hole in the 
choke plug. Tt is then carried by the steam that enters 
the equalizing tube through the choke plug to the steam 
chest, when the pressure on the lubricator end of the 
pipe is the greatest. 

Question 48. Does the draft from an open cab-win¬ 
dow afifect the working of the lubricator? Why? 

Anszver. Tt does. Cold air strikes the lubricator and 
chills the oil, which causes it to feed irregularly. 

Question 49. What else might cause ^regularity of 
feed ? 

Anszver. Choke plugs with holes too large, equaliz¬ 
ing tubes stopped up, or dirt in the lubricator. 


MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—SECOND YEAR 35 

Question 50. If a lubricator feeds faster when throt¬ 
tle is closed than open, where is the trouble? 

Anszver. In the choke plugs. The action of the 
steam wears the hole in the choker larger and the equali¬ 
zation of pressure is not maintained in the chamber 
above the sight feed glass when the throttle is closed. 

Question 51. Will any bad results ensue from filling 
a lubricator full with cold oil? 

Answer. There should be no bad results from filling 
a lubricator full of cold oik Many types of lubricators 
are provided with expansion chambers to prevent bulg¬ 
ing, and if the water valve is opened, the expansion of 
oil would simply cause it to back up into the condensing 
chamber. 

Question 52. If sight-feeds get stopped up, how 
would you clean them out? 

Answer. Much depends on the make of the lubri¬ 
cator. Usually by closing the regulating valves on the 
other feeds and the water valve between tlie condenser 
and the oil reservoir. Open the drain cock at the bot¬ 
tom of reservoir. Then if steam valve is open steam 
will blow through the equalizing tube, through the sight- 
feed glass, through the nipple into the oil reservoir and 
out the drain cock, carrying the obstructions with it; or 
remove the regulating valve and run a small wire 
through the nipple. 

Question 53. How would you clean out chokers? 

Anszver. If I could not blow out the obstruction when 
the lubricator is shut ofif and throttle drain cock and reg¬ 
ulating valve open, would disconnect oil pipe from lubri¬ 
cator and clean out choke with a small wire or pin. 


36 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—SECOND YEAR 


Question 54. Which is the better practice, to close 
feed valves or water valves while waiting on sidings? 

Answer. The feed valves always, as the water valve 
may leak, and if it does not. the supply of oil to the air 
, pump will be cut off. 

Question 55. How can you tell if equalizing tubes 
become stopped up or broken? 

Answer. If an equalizing tube were stopped up, the 
pressure of water above the feed glass would be re¬ 
duced ; and when the steam chest pressure is less than 
the boiler pressure or when throttle is closed, boiler 
pressure and the pressure of water in the condensing 
chamber would force the oil through the feed valves in a 
stream and the lubricator would feed out the oil very 
quickly. If the equalizing pipe were broken off, it would 
lower the water level in the condensing chamber and 
would be detected by the sluggish manner in which the 
lubricator would work. 





Compound •‘Consolidation" Freight Locomotive. 





MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS 

Third Year 

Giving Anszvers to Questions Adopted by the Traveling 
Engineers' Association, Third Year 
Mechanical Examination. 

Question i. What are the duties of an engineman be¬ 
fore attaching the locomotive to the train ? 

Answer. Ascertain engine number, examine bulletin 
boards and check up recent bulletins. Examine work re¬ 
ports and learn if any work has been done on the engine 
requiring special attention. Compare time, and register 
showing fireman's name and initials. On reaching the 
engine, try the gauge cocks and ascertain the water level 
and note that it corresponds with the height of water 
shown in the water glass. Take a look at the fire-box 
and flues; see that engine is equipped with necessary 
tools, signals, torpedoes and coal; water, sand, lubricants 
and proper firing tools; fill lubricator, and know that it 
works properly. See that injectors are in good condi¬ 
tion, air-pumps “O.K.”, with governors and feed valves 
adjusted to give proper pressure, and that sanders are 
working and will deliver sand to rail when needed; oil 
all parts of the locomotive requiring lubrication in a 
liberal, yet economical manner; make sure the oil holes 
are open, and oil reaches the right bearing. While 
doing this work would observe all parts closely; see 
that set-screws, bolts and nuts are tight, cotter-pins in 
place required, and everything in shape to make a sue- 
cessful trip. 


39 


40 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 

Question 2. What tools should there be on a loco- 
motive ? 

Answer. Tools that are designated on tool list for 
the different classes of engines and service that would 
enable enginemen to disconnect and care for engine out 
on the road. 

Question 3. What examination should be made after 
any work or repairs have been done on valves, brasses, 
etc. ? 

Answer. If valves were faced would see that steam 
chests were properly tightened, all joints on oil pipes 
tight, would move lever from full gear forward to full 
gear backward in several positions of engine to be sure 
that valves worked free in steam chests; in going to 
yard for train would work engine in full gear with 
lubricator feeding freely, thereby smoothing up valves 
and seats as much as possible. Would endeavor to work 
engine at a long cut-off and light throttle until a smooth 
surface was obtained. In case brasses had been filed 
would see it was properly keyed on pin, so it could be 
moved laterally, tighten set-screws and apply lubricant 
to prevent heating or cutting. If guides, eccentrics or 
rocker boxes were closed or new wheels applied would 
care for them so as to prevent delay or failure if possible. 

Question 4. What attention should be given to boiler 
attachments, such as gauge cocks, water, glasses, etc. ? 

Answer. They should be kept tightly packed but 
working freely, and seats kept tight. They should be 
closed gently to prevent cutting or scoring of seats and 
frequently used to prevent being stopped up. 

Question 5. Trace the steam from the boiler through 


MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 41 

the cylinders to the atmosphere, and explain how it trans¬ 
mits power. 

Answer. Steam is generated at or near the heating 
surfaces of the boiler, rises to the top of the dome and 
when the throttle valve is open, it enters the dry pipe, 
passes through it to the nigger-head, thence to the steam 
pipes, to the steam passages, to the steam chests. When 
either steam port leading to the cylinder is uncovered by 
the valve, steam enters the cylinder and exerts a pres¬ 
sure on the piston and cylinder-head, pushing the piston 
to the end of its stroke. After this is accomplished, the 
steam escapes from the cylinder through the same port 
which it entered, through the exhaust passage in the 
cylinder saddle to the exhaust pipe and nozzle, through 
the petticoat pipe and stack to the atmosphere. Steam 
transmits power to the locomotive by the pressure ex¬ 
erted on the piston, piston-rod, cross-head, main-rod and 
crank-pin in the driving wheels causing them to revolve 
and exert a tractive force to overcome resistance. 

Question 6. Why is it important that there be no 
holes through smoke box sheets or front end and none 
in smoke box seams or joints? 

Answer. That the partial vacuum formed in the front 
end by the exhaust may not be impaired or destroyed, 
thereby decreasing the draft on the fire, and also to pre¬ 
vent the admission of air which would ignite the cinders 
in the front end and cause the front door ring and 
smoke box sheets to warp, crack, and burn. 

Question 7. How should the locomotive be started to 
avoid jerks and what train signals should be looked for 
immediately after starting? 

Answer. Start slow until the slack is taken up, then 


42 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 


use power necessary to do the work without jerking 
train, look for an all right signal from the rear to indicate 

entire train has started. 

% 

Question 8. After a locomotive has been started how 
can it be run most economically? 

Answer. By working steam expansively and at a cut¬ 
off where she will work the best. 

Question 9. What is meant by working steam ex¬ 
pansively ? 

Answer. Placing the reverse lever in position to 
cause the valve to close the port before the piston has 
completed its stroke, allowing the steam thus confined 
in the cylinder to push the piston to the end of its 
stroke, effecting economy in the use of steam. 

Question 10. How rapidly should water be supplied 
to the boiler? 

Answer. Water should be supplied to the boiler as 
fast as it is used or evaporated taking advantage of the 
road and the run. Have sufficient water in boiler when 
starting train so the injector may be shut off until fire 
is in condition to maintain pressure when it is started, 
then would supply boiler as uniformly as possible to 
effect economy, regulating the supply to get the best re¬ 
sults according to the work to be done. / 

Question it. What is the difference between prim¬ 
ing and foaming of a locomotive boiler. 

Answer. Priming is caused by the boiler being 
pumped too full of water, and foaming is caused by the 
dirty condition of the boiler or by foreign matter and 
impurities in the water. 


MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 43 


Question 12. What should you do in case of foaming? 
What in case of priming? 

Answer. In case of foaming would ease off on the 
throttle carefully and ascertain the water level, increase 
the water supply and the lubrication to valves and cylin¬ 
ders and work engine with as light a throttle as possible 
until I could use the blow off cock and blow off the boiler 
sufficiently to prevent foaming, open cylinder cocks to 
prevent damage to cylinder head and packing rings while 
working. If the boiler was priming would make sure 
of the water level and reduce water supply or shut it off 
entirely until the water level came down to the maxi¬ 
mum ; would open cylinder cocks and feeds on lubri¬ 
cator to prevent damage to valves or cylinders. 

Question 13. What danger is there when water 
foams badly? When it primes badly? 

Answer. Danger of knocking out cylinder-head, 
breaking pistons and packing rings, cutting valves and 
seats, breaking eccentrics or eccentric straps; and when 
foaming there is also danger of the fire-box sheets be¬ 
coming overheated if care is not exercised. 

Question 14. What work about a locomotive should 
be done by the engineman ? 

Answer. Work required in accordance with service 
conditions. Keep all nuts and bolts tight, key-up rods, 
set-up wedges, care for packing, headlights, lubrica¬ 
tions, etc. Make such repairs at outside points as will 
keep engine in best condition and in case of failure or 
breakdown, bring engine to terminal with as little dam¬ 
age as possible. Make proper inspection on arrival at 
terminals and report necessary work to be done. 


44 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 


Question 15. How should the work of setting up the 
wedges be done? 

Answer. This work should be done when the driving 
boxes are at or near the running temperature and the 
pedestals or binders should be tightened up first. Then 
select a piece of straight and level track, place engine 
on top quarter or forward top eight, set tender brake, 
place lever in forward motion and open throttle slightly. 
Steam will enter the back end of cylinder and pull the 
driving boxes away from the wedges and against the 
shoes, loosen jamb nut and set up wedge until it feels 
about right, and insure against sticking. Set up jamb 
nut and tighten nut under pedestal; wedges should not 
be set up when boxes are cold unless allowances are 
made for expansion, when box attains its running tem¬ 
perature. 

Question 16. How should the rod brasses be keyed? 

Anszver. Rod brasses should be keyed brass to brass 
and be free on the pin so the rod can be moved laterally 
on the pin. But not keyed so tight that the brasses will 
be sprung out of shape and result in a hot pin. 

Question 17. How should an engine be placed for the 
purpose of keying rod brasses? 

Answer. On center to key all rod brasses except for¬ 
ward end of main-rod, which should be keyed on quarter 
or at half stroke. The reason being the wear is greatest 
on one side of the pin when the engine is running in one 
direction, and the larger diameter, if the pin is worn 
out of round, is in this position. If the main pin and 
crosshead or whist pin are perfectly round, main-rod 
can be keyed in any position, but side-rods should be 
keyed when engine is on center and if free on both cen- 


MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 45 


ters they will run all right. It is advisable to try side- 
rods on forward and back centers after keying. In case 
engine was out of tram it would be detected, and care 
should be taken when tightening up set-screws to pre¬ 
vent pulling keys down too tight on the brass. This 
work should be done on level track with wedges prop¬ 
erly set up. 

Question 18. What is the necessity of keeping brasses 
keyed up properly? 

Answer. If brasses are not kept properly keyed they 
become loose in the straps, and pound, which is detri 
mental to the engine, produces heat and sometimes 
breaks the brass and strap or strap-bolts or both. 

Question 19. How should the side-rods on a Mogul 
or Consolidated locomotive be keyed? 

Answer. Place engine on center on side to be keyed. 
Key brasses on main-pin first, then key other connection 
same as any engine. 

Question 20. What is meant by engine out of tram? 

Answer. When the wheel centers of any wheels on 
one side are not the same distance as the corresponding 
wheel centers on the other side. 

Question 21. Describe a piston valve. 

Answer. A piston valve is similar to a large spool 
with suitable grooves in each end to hold the piston valve 
rings which form the admission and exhaust edges of 
the valve. There are two types of piston valve, the 
solid and hollow. The hollow piston valve permits the 
steam to flow through it lengthwise and is lighter and 
more evenly balanced than the solid valve or the ordi¬ 
nary balanced-slide-valve and they can be used for out- 


46 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 

side or inside admission of steam to the cylinders and 
as a matter of design are more applicable to some types 
of locomotives than a slide valve. 


E=X3 


Fig. 3 

Piston Valve. 

Question 22. What is a balanced slide valve? How 
is it balanced and why? For what purpose is the hole 
drilled through the top of the valve? 

Answer. The old D valve is made in the form of a 
letter D; and when the steam is admitted to the steam 
chest, pressure is exerted on the entire back of the valve, 
forcing it to its seat. As the size of the valve and the 
steam pressure increase it increases the friction and 
power necessary to move the valve, which reduces the 
effective effort of the engine and causes numerous fail¬ 
ures as well as being very hard to handle. 

The balanced valve was introduced to handle easier 
and reduce the friction as much as possible and was bal¬ 
anced by placing strips or rings on the back of the valve 
in suitable grooves or bevels and securing a balanced 
plate to the under side of the steam chest cover that 
the rings or strips would come in contact wrth and form 
nearly a steam-tight joint, thus preventing the steam 
chest pressure from exerting any pressure downward on 



































MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 47 


the back of the valve enclosed by the strips or rings, 
thereby lessening the pressure on the valve and the fric¬ 
tion on its seat. 



Showing Section of Balanced Slide Valve. 

The number of square inches of the valve inside of the 
strips or rings in proportion to the total surface of the 
valve is the per cent that the valve is balanced and is 
governed by size of valve, size of ports and class of 
service. For instance: if the valve is in the center of 
its seat, all the pressure exerted on the back of the valve 
tends to hold it to its seat, but when the valve has opened 
the port for admission of steam to the cylinder and 
then closes the port or cuts off the steam, the port is 
covered by the underside of the valve which is then ex¬ 
posed to cylinder pressure tending to force it upward, 
and when the port is opened for exhaust, the steam from 
the cvlinder then exerts a pressure on the underside of 
the valve forcing it upward. This therefore is the reason 
why a slide valve cannot be perfectly balanced. The 
purpose of the hole drilled in the back of the valve is to 

















































48 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 


allow any pressure that may leak past the strips or 
rings to escape through the hole to the exhaust cavity 
and prevent an accumulation of pressure on the back of 
the valve that would destroy the balance feature of ‘the 
valve. 

Question 23. What is meant by inside and outside 
admission valves? 

Answer. Valves that admit steam to the ports around 
the outside edges of the valve are outside admission 
valves and those that admit steam to the ports around 
the inside edges are inside admission valves. Piston or 
box valves are the only valves that are inside admission. 

Question 24. What is the relative motion of main pis¬ 
ton and valve for inside admission valve and for out¬ 
side admission valve? 

Answer. With engine on forward center outside ad¬ 
mission valve piston must move back; therefore, to open 
port for admission of steam to cylinder outside admis¬ 
sion valve must move back. Main piston and valve 
move in same direction with outside admission valve. 
Engine in same position inside admission valve piston 
must move back. Valve admitting steam from inside 
must move forward. Main piston and valve move in 
opposite direction with inside admission valves. 

Question'2 5. What is an Allen ported valve and what 
is its object? 

Answer. The Allen ported valve is similar to the 
regular D valve, but it has a supplementary passage 
through the back of the valve and over the exhaust 
cavity which ends at the valve face, designed so that 
when the outside edge of the valve opens the port for 


MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS-THIRD YEAR 49 


the admission of steam to the cylinder, steam flows 
through the supplementary passage from the other side 
of the valve to the steam port, which gives twice the port 
opening for the admission of steam that could be ob¬ 
tained with the D valve when the engine is working at 
short cut off. 

Question 26. What is the difference in valve motion 
for outside admission valves? For inside admission 
valves ? 

Answer. With indirect motion valve gear outside ad¬ 
mission valves, the eccentrics are set at right angles to 
the pin minus the lap and lead of the valve eccentrics 
follow the pin. With inside admission valve indirect 
motion the difference would be that eccentrics are set 
at right angles to the pin plus the lap and lead of the 
valve eccentrics lead the pin. 

Question 27. What is a direct motion valve gear? 
What is an indirect motion valve gear? 

Answer. A direct motion valve gear is one in which 
valve rod and eccentric rod move in the same direc¬ 
tion. An indirect motion valve gear is one where the 
valve rod moves in the opposite direction to that of the 
eccentric rod. 

Question 28. What is meant by lead? 

Answer. The amount of port opening of the valve 
when the piston is at the beginning of its stroke. 

Question 29. What is meant by steam lap ? 

Answer. The amount of valve that extends over the 
outside edges of the steam ports when the valve is in 
the center of its seat. 

Question 30. What is meant by exhaust lap? Ex¬ 
haust clearance? 




50 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 


Answer. Exhaust lap is the amount of valve that ex¬ 
tends over the inside edges of the steam port when the 


Fig. 5. Showing Opening of Steam Port when Piston is at beginning of Stroke. 

Illustrating Question 28. 

valve is in the center of its seat, and exhaust clearance 
is the amount that the valve fails to cover the inside 
edges of the steam port when the valve is in the center 


Fig 6 

Steam Lap on Outsiae, Exhaust Pipe on Inside oi Vvve 
Illustrating Question 29. 

of its seat. Outside lap gives the advantage of work¬ 
ing steam expansively. Inside lap delays the exhaust. 
Inside clearance hastens the exhaust. 








































































































MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 51 


Question 31. With an indirect valve motion what 
would be the position of the eccentric relative to crank 



Exhaust Clearance. Illustrating Question 30 


pins? With direct motion valve gear? With outside 
admission valves? With inside admission valves? 


Answer. With indirect valve motion and outside ad¬ 
mission valves the eccentrics are set at right angles to 
the pin and advanced toward the pin the amount of lap 



Position o i Eccentrics Relative to Pin. Indirect Outside-Admission Valve. 


and lead of the valve. With indirect motion and inside 
admission valves the eccentrics are set at right angles 




































52 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 

to the pin, and advanced away from the pin the amount 
of lap and lead of the valve. With direct motion valve 
gear inside admission eccentrics are set at right angles 
to the pin and advanced toward the pin the amount of 
lap and lead of the valve. With outside admission the 
eccentrics are set at right angles to the pin and ad¬ 
vanced a.way from the pin the amount of lap and lead of 
the valve. 

Question 32. What effect would be produced upon 
the lap, and lead by changing the length of eccentric 
rods? 

Anszver. No effect on the lap or lead. Lap is posi¬ 
tive on the valve and could not be changed unless by 
taking the valve out and reducing it, and lead is given 
by the position of the eccentrics, therefore it would not 
change the lap or lead. But it would make the engine 
lame if the rods were lengthened or shortened enough 
to make the valve travel farther on one side than on the 
other from a line drawn through the center of its seat. 

Question 33. Why are eccentric rods made adjust¬ 
able? 

Answer. As an easy and convenient means of squar¬ 
ing up an engine, and where bent eccentric rods are used 
they can be adjusted more easily than if they were taken 
to a blacksmith. 

Question 34. Why is it necessary to keep cylinders 
free from water? 

Answer. To prevent damage to cylinders, cylinder- 
heads, pistons, packing rings, cutting of valves and seats, 
destroying the lubrication and lessening the power of 
the engine. Is also wasteful of fuel. 


MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 53 


Question 35. Where is piston rod packing located? 
Where cylinder packing? 

Answer. Piston rod packing is located in the stuffing 
box in the back cylinder-head and cylinder packing is 
located in the piston inside the cylinder. 

Question 36. How are metallic packing rings on 
valve stems and pistons usually held in place? What 
provisions are made for the uneven movement of the 
rods ? 

Answer. Usually held in place by the tension of a 
spring in the stuffing box which presses the packing 
against the bushing ring in the back cylinder-head, the 
other end of the spring resting on the inside of the gland 
or a ring provided for that purpose. The uneven move¬ 
ment of the rod is taken care of bv the vibrating cup 
which is a part of the packing equipment. It forms a 
flat or ball joint and allows the packing to move with 
the piston-rod without injury or excessive wear to the 
packing rings. 

Question 37. What is the cause of tank sweating and 
what will prevent it? 

Answer. The cause of a tank sweating is on account 
of the water in the tender being colder than the atmos¬ 
phere and when the air comes in contact with the cold 
surface of the tank the moisture in the air is condensed 
and forms sweat on the outside of the tank. It can be 
prevented by heating the water in the tender which also 
improves the steaming of the engine. But care should 
be taken not to get the water so hot that it would inter¬ 
fere with the proper working of the injector. 

Question 38. Explain the construction and operation 
of the blow-off cock? 


54 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 


Answer. There are many kinds of blow-off cocks. 
The simplest is a plug valve or two-way cock which is 
opened and closed by hand, or a flat seated globe valve 
which is also operated by hand. The pneumatic blow- 
off cock has a piston on which the steam or air pressure 
acts to open the valve. 

The piston operated by air or steam is larger than the 
valve exposed to boiler pressure and is usually fitted 
with a handle or stem with which the valves can be 
opened or closed by hand. Screwing or forcing the 
large piston outward will seat the valve in the blow-off 
valve-case and the boiler pressure will force the inside 
valve to its seat. Screwing in on the handle will force 
both valves off their seats when air or steam is not avail¬ 
able for their operation. 

Question 39. Describe a bell-ringer and how it can 
be adjusted? 

Answer. The bell-ringer is a small cylinder fitted 
with a piston and adjustable valve; air entering at the 
bottom of the cylinder pushes the piston up and the 
piston down to the end of the cylinder; when the opera- 
to the bell. After the piston has traveled a portion of its 
stroke the valve closes the admission port and the air 
forces the piston to the end of its stroke and opens the 
exhaust port, permitting the air to escape from under 
the piston. The weight of the bell then forces the 
piston down to the end of the cylinder, when the opera¬ 
tion is repeated. The throw of the bell is adjusted by 
means of an adjusting screw at the bell-crank. If the 
bell has too much throw the screw should be slacked up 
and if not throw enough the adjusting screw should be 
screwed down until the adjustment is right. The jamb 


MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 55 


nut should be tightened when the adjustment is made 
and the standard air pressure used to operate it. 

Question 40. In case a locomotive in your care be¬ 
came disabled on the road what would you do? 

Answer. Would see that engine and train was pro¬ 
tected in accordance with the book of rules, and make 
repairs necessary to enable engine to proceed or be towed 
in, notifying the proper officer. 

Question 41. Suppose a wash-out plug blew out or 
a blow off cock would not close. What would you do? 

Answer. Would start both injectors and either 
smother or knock out the fire as quickly as possible to 
prevent damage to the fire-box and flues. If a blow-off 
cock, would endeavor to close it, refill boiler if possible 
and come in under steam. If broken off or wash-out 
plug blown out and had no extra plug or cock to put 
in, would prepare to be towed in. Would guard against 
this trouble by inspection and by closing the blow-off 
cock immediately after opening it. to determine whether 
in working order ; then in case it did stick, would have 
more time to get it closed than if water was low in 
boiler before I discovered it would not close. 

Question 42. What should be done if grates be 
burned out or broken while out on the road ? 

Answer. If a part of a set of grates were burned or 
broken, would endeavor to place angle-bars, pieces of 
rail or scrap iron across the space to hold the fire until 
terminal could be reached. Arch-brick or stone could 
also be used for this purpose to fill up the hole if en¬ 
gine had a shallow ash pan, but on wide fire-box engine 
with grates completely burned out or broken, the fire 
should be dumped and engine towed in to prevent burn- 


56 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 


ing up ash-pan center and side-bars, grate-rods, etc. 
Keeping the ash-pan clean will prevent this trouble from 
burned grates. 

Question 43. What precaution should be taken to 
prevent locomotive throwing fire? 

Answer. The netting in the front end should be in 
good condition. Work engine as light as possible and 
close dampers while passing over bridges or working 
around lumber or material yards and avoid slipping of 
engine. 

Question 44. What should be done with a badly leak¬ 
ing or bursted flue ? 

Answer. If practical would plug it with iron plugs 
and plugging-bar provided for that purpose. If I had no 
plugs or bar, would make a plug on the end of a long 
stick, drive it in and break it off. If one of the upper 
flues were bursted badly and could not be reached in the 
front end on account of the diaphragm plates and could 
not keep water in boiler, would have to be towed in. 

Question 45. Suppose that immediately after closing 
the throttle, the water disappeared from water gauge 
glass, what should be done? 

Answer. Would open the throttle again, increase the 
boiler feed and ascertain the water level. In case the 
crown sheet was in danger of being over-heated, and a 
stop had to be made, would hook lever in center and 
leave throttle slightly open until stopped, then reverse 
the lever from forward to back motion several times, 
which would slush the water over the crown sheet until 
. the increased boiler supply brought the water up to a 
safe level in the boiler. 


MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 57 


Question 46. What should be done in case the throttle 
valve-stem becomes disconnected while valve is closed? 
If it becomes disconnected while open? 

Answer. If disconnected closed, would prepare to be 
towed in. If disconnected open, would reduce steam 
pressure so I could handle the engine with reverse lever 
and brake. Would notify train crew so they could act 
accordingly and report conditions to proper officer from 
first telegraph office. 

Question 47. In case a slide-valve yoke or stem be¬ 
came broken inside of steam chest, how can the breakage 
be located? 

Answer. If the valve yoke or stem should break in¬ 
side the steam chest when the engine is working steam 
it may be detected by the irregular sound of the exhaust. 
By opening the cylinder cocks and watching the steam 
escaping from them, the side of the engine that shows 
steam escaping from one cylinder-cock constantly is the 



Fig. 9 

Blocking a Broken Slide-Valve Yoke or Stem. 


side with the broken yoke or stem. If stopped, place 
the engine on quarter on side to be tested, open cylinder 
cocks, then open throttle slightly and reverse the lever 
from full forward to full back gear; if steam shows 
alternately at each cylinder cock, that side is all right and 









































































58 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 

^ c 

the other side should be tested in the same manner. If 
stem or yoke is broken the valve will be forced forward 
but cannot be pulled back and steam will show at one 
cylinder cock only; or by disconnecting the valve stem 
from the rocker arm and giving the stem a twisting mo¬ 
tion, this defect can be readily located. 

Question 48. After locating a breakage of this kind 
how should one proceed to put the engine in safe run¬ 
ning order? 

Answer. If the engine was on center on good side 
would move the valve on the disabled side to open either 
forward or back port then open throttle enough to move 
the engine until the good side was on eighth or quarter. 
This would enable the engine to start when ready to go. 
Now disconnect valve rod from rocker and unscrew the 



relief valve from steam chest and move the valve in posi¬ 
tion to open front steam port about one sixteenth of an 
inch. Clamp valve-rod to hold valve in that position 
and fit a piece of wood in the relief valve so that when it 
was screwed back into place the valve would be held se¬ 
curely. Take out the front cylinder-cock valve or block 
it open, open feed on lubricator to feed a little faster 
on the disabled side and come in on one side with main- 



















































MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 50 


rod up. Would not take down the main-rod only in 
cases where it was absolutely necessary, such as broken 
main-pins, etc. 

Question 49. If a slide valve is broken what can be 
done to run the engine with one side? 

Answer. If the valve is broken so the ports cannot 
be covered by a valve in the same manner as with a 
broken yoke or stem, the steam chest cover must be 
taken up and either the admission ports to the steam 
chest or the steam admission ports to the cylinder and 



Blocking a Broken Link Hanger Illustrating Question 50. 

exhaust port must be blocked. If the valve is not broken 
too badly it can be used with other blocking for this 
purpose &nd the cover again put on the steam chest and 








60 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 

tightened down to prevent leakage and to hold the block¬ 
ing in place, the valve-rod disconnected and provision 
made for lubricating the cylinder on the disabled side 
either through the indicator plugs or removing the cyl¬ 
inder-head if the main-rod is left up. 



Fig. '31. Blocking a Link. Illustrating Question 51. 

Question 50. What should be done in case of a link 
saddle pin breaking? 

Answer. Fit a block between the top of the link and 
the link block so the valve on that side would be given 
proper cut-off to handle train. Would put a wedge or 
block in the quadrant so that engine could not be re¬ 
versed until the block was removed, in case I should 
forget that one link was blocked up. The good side 
could be worked at a longer or shorter cut-off if neces¬ 
sary to handle train. 

Question 51. With one link blocked up, what should 
be guarded against? 

















MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 61 


Answer. Guard against reversing and working engine 
on one side in the opposite direction from the other, 
which would result in damage to the engine. 

Question 52. How can it be known if the eccentric 
has slipped on the axle? 

Answer. By the engine going suddenly lame. Open 
the cylinder-cocks and notice if steam comes out of the 
cylinder-cock at the instant the piston begins its stroke 
in either direction with lever in full gear. If it does not 
it indicates that the eccentric for that motion has slipped 
either forward or back. If the steam shows at the cyl¬ 
inder-cock before the piston reaches the end of the 
stroke, it indicates that the eccentric has slipped forward 
hastening admission, and if steam does not show at the 
cylinder-cock until after the piston has commenced its 
stroke it indicates that the eccentric has slipped back 
or away from the pin, delaying admission of steam to 
the cylinder. 

Question 53. Having determined which eccentric has 
slipped, how should it be reset? 

Answer. Would place the engine on forward center 
and for forward motion eccentric, place lever in full gear 
forward. Set brake or block wheels, open cylinder- 
cocks and open throttle lightly and move the eccentric 
until steam appeared at the front cylinder-cock. For 
back motion eccentric would put lever in full gear back¬ 
ward and move eccentric until steam came out of front 
cylinder-cock; would have the large part of one eccentric 
above and the other below the axle. This for indirect 
outside admission valves or direct inside admission valve 


engines. 


62 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 


For a direct motion outside admission or an indirect 
inside admission would place the engine in same posi¬ 
tion. The eccentrics in this case leading the pins would 
be advanced away from instead of toward the pins to get 
the port opening. 

Question 54. What should be done in case of a 
broken eccentric strap or rod? 

Answer . If a forward motion eccentric strap or rod 
breaks and engine were running ahead would remove 
broken parts, disconnect link-hanger and allow link to 
ride on the link-block, take down the valve-rod and 
clamp valve to allow one steam port to remain slightly 
open. Would not take down main-rod or the good eccen¬ 
tric-rod or strap unless necessary. If the back motion 
eccentric strap were broken and engine running ahead 
would remove broken strap and fasten back end of 
eccentric-rod to the good eccentric strap using a long bolt 
and nuts or washers to fill in between the eccentric-rods. 

This would hold the bottom of the link so the engine 
could be worked in full gear forward and get train in. 
Would block quadrant or slot in the running-board to 
prevent the engine being reversed while in this condi¬ 
tion. Could bring in the engine and train in same man¬ 
ner if the back motion rod were broken if the bottom 
of the link could be securely fastened. (But this is dif¬ 
ficult and it is not always advisable to try it.) If not, 
would take down eccentric straps and rods on disabled 
side, clamp valve in position and bring in all the train 
that could be handled with engine working one side, 
(In handling an engine with a broken eccentric strap 
or rod and the link secured at the bottom, it must be 
remembered that the engine can only be run in forward 
motion.) 


MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 6.1 


Question 55. How should an angle be disconnected if 
lower rocker arm became broken? If link pin? 

Answer. If lower rocker arm or link-block-pin be¬ 
came broken would remove the broken parts, clamp 
valve-rod in position to leave one port slightly open, re¬ 
move the valve from the corresponding cylinder-cock or 
block it open and make sure that link would not strike 
anything, and proceed. 

Question 56. What would be considered a bad engine 
or tender-truck wheel? 

Anszver. A wheel with a sharp flange one inch ver¬ 
tical, worn tread, chipped rim, sand holes, cracked hub, 
or bent axles, or with flat-spots more than 2]/ 2 inches 
long. 

Question 57. What should be done if an engine truck 
wheel or axle should break ? 



Answer. If an engine truck wheel breaks it can 
usually be skidded to a siding by fastening it with a 
chain, but if the wheel is broken badly or the axle breaks, 
the front end of the engine should be raised to take the 
weight off the truck. Then jack or raise the axle and 
block under it so the block will hold it up. Then jack 
up the journal box and end of truck frame and chain 





































64 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 


it to the main frame of the engine, place a block be¬ 
tween the engine-frame and the engine truck-frame over 
the good wheels and chain the truck-frame to engine 
frame on opposite side to prevent the good wheel from 
dropping off the rail, and the truck from swinging, and 
to hold it clear of the rail, if for a broken axle. Some¬ 
times it is necessary to send for wheels and men to put 
them in. Would be sure that wheels cleared the rails 
and would run slow taking no chances of a derailment 
while running an engine with broken truck wheels or 
axles, and would use best judgment in making repairs to 
get in. 

Question 58. What should be done if a tender wheel 
or axle should break? 

Answer . If a tender truck wheel breaks it is usual¬ 
ly best to skid it to a siding; if a great distance, the 
tender should be lightened of its load as much as pos¬ 
sible. There are various ways in which a tender may 
be chained up for a broken wheel or axle such as placing 
ties or rails across the top of the tender and blocking 
between the good boxes and tender frame, but lack of 
material to make such repairs renders it more desirable 
to give up the train and get out of the way of traffic 
until wheels and help are sent to replace the broken 
wheels. 

Question 59. How should an engine be blocked for 
a broken engine truck or equalizer? For a broken ten¬ 
der truck spring? 

Answer. With a broken engine truck spring would 
raise the truck frame and block between the top of the 
equalizers and the underside of the truck frame to hold 
the engine in its usual level position and keep the pilot 


MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 65 


from coming too close to rails, frogs, crossing planks, etc. 
In case the equalizer were broken would block between 
the underside of truck frame and over the boxes to hold 
engine up in its usual position, removing the broken 
equalizers if necessary. For a broken tender truck 



Blocking a Broken Engine-Truck Spring. 

If equalizer, block over truck boxes and under engine-truck frames. 


spring would block between the spring plank and the 
truck bolster if necessary or between the spring bands 
if elliptical springs were used.' Much depends on the 
style of spring and construction of truck. Frequently 
the tender will run to terminal without any repairs; and 
if it would in safety, would not lose any time trying to 
block it up. 

Question 60. For what break-downs is it necessary 
to take down the main-rods? The side rods? 

Answer. Would take down main-rod for broken 
main-pin, broken or bent main-rod, broken cross-head, 
bent or broken piston-rod or broken back cylinder-head 
if guide-yoke were bent and guide spring out of line. 
•Would take down side-rods for broken pin, broken strap, 
bent side-rod or broken rod. Would also take down 
corresponding rods on opposite side if using steam on 
both sides of the engine. 





































































66 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 


Question 61. If it is not necessary to take down the 
main-rod on disabled side of the engine how would you 
arrange to lubricate the cylinders ? 

Answer. Oil may be introduced to the cylinder by 
oiling through the indicator plug-holes or through the 
relief valves in cylinder-heads if engine is so equipped. 
But by clamping the valve so that the steam-port 
is open about the thickness of a piece of Russia iron, 
it will allow a small amount of steam to flow to the 
cylinder and if the lubricator is allowed to feed oil a 
little faster to the disabled side it will provide proper 
lubrication for the cylinder. The cylinder cock valve 
should be taken out or blocked open under the port 
that is left partly open and the steam will carry the oil 
to the cylinder-walls. This gives an easy means of 
starting the engine in case it is stopped »on the cen¬ 
ter on good side; closing the cylinder-cock and opening 
the throttle will admit steam enough to the cylinder to 
move the engine off center and saves pinching the en¬ 
gine which is a difficult thing to do with heavy power. 

Question 62. What should be done if a driving¬ 
spring, spring-hanger or equalizer should break? 

Anszver. This depends upon the class of engine and 
the arrangement of springs and equalizers. Take for 
example an eight-wheel engine with a forward spring or 
spring-hanger broken. Would place a block between 
die top of the back driving-box and frame and put a 
wedge on the rail and run the back wheel onto it. This 
would take the weight off the forward box. Then block 
solid between the top of the front box and frame with 
hard-wood blocking, or if iron is used would insert a 
piece of wood to keep iron blocks from slipping, remove 


MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 67 


the spring saddle if necessary, also the spring if liable to 
get caught. Would then run the back wheel off the 
wedge letting the engine down, remove the blocking 
from the top of the back box and run the front wheel 
up on the wedge, which would take the weight off 
the back box and relieve the equalizer so the front 
end could be blocked up solid. I would then let the 
engine down, remove or secure broken parts, and pro¬ 
ceed. If the back spring or hanger were broken would 
handle in same manner, reversing the operation. For a 



Blocking a Broken Front Driving Spring or Hanger 

broken trailer spring would raise frame and cross equal¬ 
izer by placing a block between the bottom frame and 
a tie and another block between a tie and the end ot 
cross equalizer, moving engine very carefully until high 
enough to place a tie on top of trailer box in place of 
the spring and chain back-end to trailer frame and front- 
end to cross equalizer. If front trailer spring-hanger 
were broken I would chain cross equalizer to end of 
spring. If back trailer spring-hanger were to break 
would block between fire-box and spring, raising engine 
in the same manner as for a broken spring. (An import¬ 
ant thing in blocking an engine is to get her high enough 
and the weight distributed as uniformly as possible.) 

Question 63. How can an engine be moved if the 
reverse lever or reach rod were caught at short cut off 
by a broken spring or hanger? 






























68 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 


Answer. By disconnecting the front-end of the reach- 
rod or the lifting arms from the link hangers, taking 



Blocking a Broken Back Driving Spring or Hanger. 

care not to let the links drop on the link block and so 
cause damage. 

Question 64. How can blowing of steam past a 
valve, cylinder packing or valve strip be distinguished 
and located? 

Answer. Would test for a valve blow by placing 
engine on quarter on side to be tested, cover ports and 
open cylinder-cocks and throttle with brake set. If 
steam came out of one or both cylinder cocks on that side 
it would indicate that valve was blowing. A blow from 
the cylinder packing when engine is at short cut-off 
is usually strongest at the beginning of the stroke and 
becomes lighter as the pressure in the cylinder gets less. 
By placing the piston at half stroke with lever either in 
full gear back or forward and cylinder cock blocked 
open at opposite end from which steam is admitted with 
the throttle open, if steam shows at the open cylinder 
cock the cylinder packing on that side is blowing. A 
valve strip or ring has a constant blow when broken ; 
when the throttle is open, it sounds very much as if the 
blower was working, and is detected by the sound and 
the manner in which the lever handles. To locate which 
valve had the broken strip or ring, would place the 
engine on the quarter and open throttle, move the lever 































MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 69 


from full gear forward to full gear backward, and try 
each side of the engine, and the side on quarter‘when 
lever was hardest to handle would be the side with the 
broken strip. Could also locate this by taking hold of 
the valve rod when engine was working and determine 
by the feel of the valve rod. The broken strip or ring 
destroys the balance of the valve and the vibrations 
of the valve rod will indicate it. 

Question 65. If an engine should blow badly and 
be unable to start the train when on the right-hand dead 
center, on which side would be the blow generally? 

Answer. On the left side. The right side being on 
dead center would have only the amount of lead to 
open the port and no rotative force on the driver. The 
left side having full open port and pin on quarter would 
be at its strongest point and the blow would be usually 
found on the left side. 

Question 66. If the throttle were closed and steam 
came out of cylinder cocks, what might be the cause? 

Answer. Leaky throttle, leaky dry pipe or steam 
entering cylinders from the lubricator or from the ex¬ 
haust from air-pump if exhaust were tapped into ex¬ 
haust cavity. 

Question 67. Is it possible to distinguish between a 
leaky throttle and a leaky dry pipe? 

Anszver. Yes. If steam escapes from the cylinder 
cocks when the throttle is closed, would fill boiler with 
water to a height that would submerge the dry pipe; then 
if steam and water came out of cylinder cocks would 
report dry pipe leaking, but if dry steam came out of 
cylinder cocks would know that the throttle was leak- 


70 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 

Question 68. What effect have leaky steam pipes 
and how should they be tested? 

Answer. Leaky steam pipes allow steam to escape 
into the smoke-box and front end and destroy the 
vacuum, thereby reducing the draft and the steaming 
qualities of the engine. The first indication is a hard 
steaming engine and a dirty red fire. They may be lo¬ 
cated by opening the front end and examining the joints 
with the throttle open. To test, water pressure should 
be used on the pipes. This test must be made in the 
round-house or shop. 

Question 69. How should the test for a leaky exhaust 
pipe joint or a leaky nozzle joint be made? 

Anszirer. Open front end and make’ an examination. 
The appearance of the joints and the absence of cinders 
around the joint at the bottom of the exhaust-pipe will 
indicate a leak plugging the nozzle-tip, and using water 
pressure same as for steam pipes is the most reliable 
method of testing for leaks. 

Question 70. What should be done if a steam chest 
cracks ? 

Answer. If a steam chest were cracked and it was 
one with the studs all on the outside, the nuts holding 
the cover down should be loosened and the crack drawn 
together by wedging between the studs and chest, using 
cut nails, or brake-shoe-keys for wedges. Tighten cover 
down and proceed with train/ If the chest has holes 
cored in it for the studs to pass through, would be better 
not to attempt it as it might be difficult to make it tight. 
Would then reduce or set out train and come in for 
repairs. 


MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 71 


Question 71. What should be done if a steam chest 
breaks? 

Answer. About the only repair that can be made 
on the road in case of this kind is to block the steam 



admission ports to the steam chest by using- the steam 
chest cover and remaining studs to hold blocking down. 

Question 72. If a link lifter arm was broken what 
should be done? 

Answer. A block must be placed between the link 
block and the top of the link of sufficient length to 
give the desired cut-off to handle the train. If neces¬ 
sary I would put a block under the link-block, leaving- 
room for the slip of the link on the block, and* place a 
block in the bottom of link on the good side or block 
the quadrant to prevent reversing. 

Question 73. If the reverse lever or reach-rod should 
break what should be done? 

Answer. Would place a block between the top of the 
link-block and top of the link to give a cut-off to enable 
the engine to handle train. Blocking one side is all that 






































72 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 

would be necessary. In case I had to back in on siding 
would raise links higher by placing longer blocks be¬ 
tween link-block and top of link. 

Question 74. What should be done if the piston, 
cross-head, main-rod or crank-pin is bent or broken? 

Answer . If a piston or piston-rod is bent or broken, 
would remove the broken parts, cover parts on that side, 
disconnect valve-stem and come in on one side. If the 



cross-head or main-rod were broken, would take down 
main-rod, clamp valve securely in center of its seat, dis¬ 
connect valve-rod and secure the remaining parts and 
come in on one side. If main crank-pin were broken 



Blocking Crosshead Guides, 2-Bar Type. 


off would disconnect valve-stem, cover ports and take 
down all rods on that side leaving all rods up on the 
good side, and come in on that side. (This answer is 


















































































MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 73 


m 

a little out of the regular practice; but it is difficult to 
handle an engine with only one wheel, and by leaving- 
all side-rods up on the good side you will be enabled to 
start and handle engine properly and without further 
damage. This only applies to an engine when she is 
working steam on one side only. When both main-rods 
are up always take down opposite side-rods.) 

Question 75. What should be done if a safety valve 
spring breaks? 

Answer. Screw down on the adjusting screw until 
steam ceases to escape and regulate the other valve to 
the pressure allowed. If the adjusting screw is long 
enough this can be done. If not, the pressure must be 
blown off the boiler and a block put in the pop valve 
or the valve screwed*out and plugged, and screwed 
back into place and the other valve adjusted for the 
boiler pressure. 

Question 76. What should be done when there is a 
loose or lost cylinder key? 

Answer. If cylinder key were loose would tighten by 
shimming key, using a piece of old shovel or shovel- 
sheet for a shim, and drive key in good and solid. If 
key were lost and I could not fit a rod-key or a piece of 
iron in its place, would set out train and come in light, 
working engine as lightly as possible, or would take 
engine down on that side and bring in all the train 
I could handle on good side. This to prevent shearing 
of saddle-bolts and loosening up steampipe joints or do¬ 
ing further damage to engine or cylinders. If near a 
blacksmith shop might be able to get a key made to get 
in. 


74 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 





Fig JS 


Fig J 6 

Blocking Front Tire of 8-Wheeled Engine. Illustrating Question 82. 

would give up train, or disconnect on that side, as my 
judgment would dictate, and under no circumstances 
would I permit an engine to couple on ahead of me. 

Question 79. What should be done if a frame is 
broken back of main-driver? 


Question 77. How can an engine be brought in with 
a broken front end or stack ? 

Answer. A front end can usually be boarded up to 
obtain sufficient draft to come in light; a box-car door 
or a couple of grain doors may be used, for this purpose. 
When stack is gone the blower can be used to create 
sufficient draft to bring engine in. 

Question 78. What should be done if a frame is 
broken between the main-driver and cylinder? 

Answer. If a bad break, and the crack opens up, I 



















































































MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 75 


Answer. Would not try to handle any train under 
this condition unless could push it ahead of the engine, 
could bring the engine in light without damage. 

Question 80. In case of broken side-rods what 
should be done? 

Answer. Remove the broken parts and take down 
corresponding rods on opposite side if working steam 
in both cylinders. If I did not take down opposite rods, 
would be liable to break it or the pin; in case the side 
with the rod up was on center and engine started, it would 
be a straight pull on that rod and pin as there would 
be no power exerted on the wheel on the other side 
to revolve it in the right direction. 



Blocking Broken Tire on Front Driver, Mogul Engine. 

Illustrating Question 82. 

Question 81. What can be done if the intermediate 
side-rods were broken on a consolidated engine having 
the eccentrics on the axle ahead of the main wheel ? 



Blocking Broken Tire on Middle Driver, Mogul Engine. 

Illustrating Question 82. 

Answer. If both intermediate side-rods were broken 
would not attempt to run engine in under her own steam, 


























































76 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 


as the engine might slip and get ahead o£ the valve-gear 
which would result in damage to the engine. If only 
one intermediate side-rod were broken, would take down 
all side-rods and main-rod on that side, cover ports, dis¬ 
connect valve-stem and come in on good side with all 
rods up on that side. 

Question 82. Should one of the forward tires, main 
tires, or a trailer tire break, what must be done to bring 
the engine in ? 

Answer. Should one of the front tires break would 
run that wheel on to a wedge until it was about in nor- 



Blocking Broken Tire on Trailer, Atlantic Engine. 

Illustrating Question 82. 

p 

mal position or high enough to clear the rail if the tire 
still remained on the wheel, remove the oil cellar and 
block between the bottom of the driving box and the 
pedestal; then cut a block and fit in place of the oil 



Fig Z V 

Blocking Broken Trailer Spring. Illustrating Question 82. 


cellar for the journal to rest on. Now block between the 
top of the frame and spring saddle to relieve the box of 
the weight it carries. Cut out driver brake, and if rods 
were not damaged would proceed. If a main tire should 




























































MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 77 


break and no other damage were done would handle in 
same manner; also an intermediate. If a back tire and 
the arrangement of the spring rigging was such that 
the equalizer rests oh top of the back driving box it 
would not be possible to block between spring saddle 
and frame. In that case block between the back-end of 
spring and lower rail of frame, so the frame would 
carry the load instead of the box. If this would not 
hold engine up, I would raise up back-end of engine 
and block between main driving box and frame, run 
slow and carefully over frogs and switches and take no 
chances of derailment. 

For trailer tire broken I would run wheel up on 
wedge higher than the thickness of tire, take out the 




Illustrating Question 82. 

cellar, and block between the bottom of journal and box; 
then block between bottom of box and pedestal, and 
block cross equalizer in safety hanger or chain it to 
frame, place a tie or piece of rail from deck of engine 
to floor of tank and chain trailer frame to it. 





















































































78 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 


When trailer wheel is blocked up in this manner would 
exercise care in going around curves to prevent the 
good trailer wheel from dropping off the rail. Wedging 
between engine and tender on the disabled side and close 
to the draw-bar would have a tendency to crowd the 
good wheel to the rail. I would always lubricate the 
blocks that the journals rest on when the cellars are 
removed. 



Blocking Broken Main Tire, Consolidation Engine, 



Fig. 28 

Blocking Broken Back Tire, Consolidation Engine. 
Illustrating Question 28. 


Question 83. What is a good method of raising a 
wheel when jacks are not available? 

Answer. By running it up on a wedge or by cutting 
a block the proper length and placing it at an angle 
one end against the box and the other on a tie and 
move the engine slowly until the block is perpendicular; 
this will raise the wheel or box. 

Question 84. How can it be known whether the 
wedges are set up too tight, and the driving box sticks, 
and in what manner can they be pulled down? 














































































MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 79 


i 'Answer . A stuck driving box can be detected very 
quickly by the manner in which the engine rides, and 
if run for a great distance the box will get hot which 
will further increase the trouble. They can be pulled 
down by means of the nut and screw used for adjust¬ 
ment. Would put a strain on the wedge-bolt by tight¬ 
ening the nut under the pedestal and run the next wheel 
over a coal pick or piece of iron which would jar it loose. 
I would not run the wheel with the stuck box over a nut 
or piece of iron as that would pull the wedge up and 
tighten the box more, if there is any slack in the head 
of the wedge bolt. While running the wheel next to it 
on a wedge or nut, it will relieve the box. Sometimes a 
pail of water thrown on the hot-box will contract it and 
assist in getting it loose. I would not run engine with 
stuck wedges as it causes flues to leak and loosens up all 
nuts, joints and pipes about the engine. 

Question 85. What are some of the various causes 
for pounds? 

Answer. Loose pedestals, wedges not properly set 
up, rods not keyed-up, loose pistons, main-rods* *too 
long or too short, follower bolts loose, cylinders loose 
on frames, broken frames, brasses too large for pins 
and journals, flat spots in tires, and loose counterbalance 
blocks, cross heads, rocker boxes, etc. 

Question 86. How can a pound in driving boxes, 
wedges or rod brasses be located ? 

Answer. By blocking engine on quarter, opening 
throttle and working the reverse lever from full forward 
to full back gear, the lost motion in rods, wedges, boxes 
or other parts can be detected. 


80 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 


Question 87. When should crossheads or guides be 
reported to be lined. 

Anszver. When they are worn so they begin to pound 
and there is room to insert a liner. 

Question 88. When should driving box wedges be re¬ 
ported to be lined? 

Anszver. When they are up as far as they can go 
and do not take the pound out of the box. If not 
properly fitted so box is allowed to rock they should 
be repaired when needed. 

Question, 89. When should rod brasses be reported 
to be filed? To be lined? 

Anszver. Rod brasses should be reported to be filed 
when they are keyed brass to brass and still pound. 
And they should be reported lined or to have keys 
raised when driving the key 'will not bring the brasses 
together. 

Question 90. When should lost motion between en¬ 
gine and tender be taken up? 

Anszver. Whenever it is necessary to prevent un¬ 
necessary slack between engine and tender and to keep 
the tender so it will ride good. 

Question 91. Describe the principle on which an in¬ 
jector works? 

Anszver. The principle of the injector’s action is that 
of induced currents; under a given pressure the velocity 
of escaping steam is about nine times greater than that 
of water and a current of any kind has a tendency to in¬ 
duce a movement in the same direction of any body that 
it passes or comes in contact with. Therefore the steam 
having great velocity meeting the water in the injector 


MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 81 


induces its movement and forces the water into the boiler, 
gives up its heat and performs mechanical work as though 
it acted on a piston and moved a pump plunger along 
with it. When the primer or steam valve is opened on 
a lifting injector steam is permitted to flow out through 
the overflow to the atmosphere and carries some of the 
air from the supply pipe producing a partial vacuum 
there. When sufficient vacuum is formed the atmos¬ 
pheric pressure on the water in the tender forces the 
water up to the injector and out at the overflow. When 
the injector throttle is opened steam is permitted to 
pass through the injector in a much larger volume and 
coming in contact with the water which is flowing 
around the nozzle forces the water with increased veloc¬ 
ity into the combining tube where the steam is condensed 
and forces the water into the boiler. 

Question 92. What is generally the cause of failure 
of-the second injector and what should be done to ob¬ 
viate this failure? 

Answer. The failure of the second injector is gener¬ 
ally due to its not being used often enough to keep it 
in good working order. To obviate this would work it 
part of the time during each trip and know that I could 
rely on it in case the other injector failed. 

X 

Question 93. What are the advantages of the com¬ 
bination boiler check? 

Answer. Bv the use of a combination check and stop 
valve, the valve may be closed in the event of the check 
sticking up or leaking and the check removed, ground 
in, or repaired without letting the steam off the boiler. 
It also reduces failures due to stuck checks. 


82 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 


Question 94. If the injector stops working out on 
the road, what should be done? 

Answer. Start the other injector immediately and use 
it to supply boiler until the trouble with the defective 
injector, can be ascertained. Would know sufficient 
water was in the tank and tank valve open and all joints 
in feed pipe connections tight, hose and strainer free 
and that the main throttle on injector was open permit¬ 
ting a sufficient quantity of steam to reach the injector 
to insure its proper working, then make sure that the 
combination stop and check were open or that there 
was a hole in the boiler for the water to be forced 
through. If the injector did not work, would examine 
tubes and ascertain if they were obstructed. 

Question 95. How can a disconnected tank valve be 
opened without stopping? 

Answer. It may be opened by blowing steam back 
through the f ed-pipe thereby blowing the valve out of 
its place. This depends on the construction of the tank 
valve and care must be exercised to prevent blowing 
off water hose. 

Question 96. How does the steam heat reducing- 
valve control the pressure? 

Answer. The steam heat reducing-valve controls the 
pressure of steam to the heating system similar to the 
manner in which the governor on an air-pump con¬ 
trols the flow or pressure of steam to the air-pump, by 
means of a diaphragm held in position by a spring, to 
which is connected directly the valve that regulates 
the admission of steam from the boiler to the train-pipe. 
The tension of the spring is regulated for the desired 
pressure by increasing or decreasing it. When the ten- 


MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 83 


sion of the spring is greater than the steam pressure the 
diaphragm and valve are forced down opening the 

• 

valve and allowing the steam to flow into the train- 
pipe until the pressure of the steam is greater than the 
resistance of the spring when the steam forces the dia¬ 
phragm up and closes the valve until the pressure falls 
below the resistance of the spring when it is again 
opened by the diaphragm and spring forcing the valve 
off its seat. The more tension put on the spring the 
higher the pressure will he in the steam-pipe. 

Question 97. If steam heat gauge showed the re¬ 
quired pressure and cars were not being heated properly, 
how should one proceed to locate the trouble ? 

Answer. Would open steam-valve at rear, of tender 
and make sure there was no obstruction in the pipes 
from the reducing-valve to rear end of tender and that 
the steam-pipes were not covered with water on back 
of tender. Would open all valves on train-line until 
the rear valve was reached, blow out train-line and 
nearly close valve on rear end of last car, then open drip 
valves to let condensation out of heating coils. 

Question 98. What constitutes the abuse of an en¬ 
gine ? 

Answer. Working an engine harder than necessary 
to handle train properly and make time. Slipping en¬ 
gine, working water through valves and cylinders, poor 
pumping, careless firing that will cause flues to leak, 
running engine with wedges down and rods pounding, 
sand running on one side only, improper lubrication or 
generally neglecting to care for engine properly. 

Question 99. How are accidents and break-downs 
best prevented? 


84 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 


Answer. By being careful in handling engine and 
train and by proper inspection and keeping awake and 
attending strictly to business while out on the road. 

Question ioo. What are the duties of an engineman 
when giving up his engine at the terminal ? 

Answer. To thoroughly inspect engine and close all 
feeds on oil cups and lubricators to prevent waste of oil, 
and report necessary work to be done to fit engine for 
next trip. 

Question ioi. In what manner should an engine be 
inspected on arrival at terminal ? 

Answer. When engine arrives at round-house or re¬ 
ceiving track, the fire-box should be examined for leaky 
flues, stay or crown-bolts, and the boiler should be left 
reasonably full of water. Would begin at back driver 
when I struck the ground and note the temperature of 
all bearings, . examine tires, wheels, eccentrics, wedge 
bolts, pedestal bolts, cellar bolts, springs, equalizers, and 
spring rigging, rocker boxes, tires and wheels, all safety 
appliances on front and back end of engine and tender. 
Would proceed around the pilot and back to the rear of 
tank, note that wheels, springs, brake-beams, shores and 
hangers were all right and see that ash-pan and screen- 
dampers were O. K.. and look engine over very care¬ 
fully until I reached the point where I commenced in¬ 
spection ; if any bolts or nuts were loose would tighten 
same and report any other defects that were necessary. 

Question 102. In reporting work on any wheel or 
truck on engine or tender how should thev be desig- 

0 - o 

nated? 

Anszeer. Designated by number beginning with first 
wheel behind the pilot, as engine truck number one, or 


MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 85 


engine truck number two, right or left, using same 
method on tender unless the road had a different system 
of numbering wheels. This would not include drivers. 
They should he designated as R-front driver, L-main 

m 

driver, R-intermediate, etc. 

Question 103. In reporting work on an engine is it 
sufficient to do it in a general way, such as saying an in¬ 
jector won’t work? Lubricator won’t work? Pump 
won’t work? Engine won’t steam? Engine blows, etc.? 

Answer. No, work should be intelligently reported 
to enable the machinist or foreman to locate the defect 
quickly and an explanation given on the work report 
which would insure the defect being repaired. 


REPORTING LOCOMOTIVE DEFECTS. 

“No steam, right injector not working, pound on the 
right side, bad coal.” Such reports as these are often 
made by enginemen. 

It is impossible to keep locomotives up to proper con¬ 
dition with reports of this character, because roundhouse 
forces are not given sufficient information to correct the 
difficulties. When an engine is cold in the roundhouse 
it is impossible for the men to discover the exact cause of 
the trouble and in many cases the neecssary work is not 
done. 

Many motive power officials complain of the indefinite¬ 
ness of the reports of enginemen and they say it has 
grown worse with the increase of pooling. Undoubtedly 


86 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 

if the men realized the importance of it they would be 
more explicit in their statements. On some roads such 
reports are not permitted, the men being required to 
know where the pound occurs, what the trouble with the 
injector is and why the engine does not steam, or if they 
cannot tell positively they are required to give an intelli¬ 
gent opinion. 

It is not unreasonable to expect an engineer to know 
quite definitely what is wrong, and where such difficulties 
occur it seems fair to predict that great good would result 
from closer relations between the traveling engineer and 
the men. Would the owner of a $20,000 horse accept from 
his driver a statement that the animal was lame, or other¬ 
wise not right? He would certainly be justified in ex¬ 
pecting the man to take sufficient interest in his charge 
to know where he was lame or what was wrong. It can 
not be believed that the men who are entrusted with 
modern locomotives are not capable of satisfactory diag¬ 
nosis. 

“Poor coal is generally accepted as a reason for engine 
failures on most roads. There seems to be some mystic 
power in these two words. With proper management of 
the fire, ‘‘poor coal" should never lead to an engine 
failure. Are the locomotives designed for the coal they 
must use ? Do the firemen receive the amount of instruc¬ 
tion in the use of fuel that the importance of their work 
requires? Does the engineer feel sufficiently responsible 
for or interested in the work of his fireman to give him 
the benefit of his experience? Anything which will in¬ 
crease the interest of the men in their work will help 
these matters along wonderfully. In Europe premiums 
to the engineer and fireman have accomplished wonders 
in these directions. * 


MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 87 

DEFINITIONS. 

$ 

Compression. The closing of the exhaust by the 
exhaust edges of the valve and the steam thus confined 
in the cylinder being compressed by the approaching pis¬ 
ton is the compression. 

Cut-off. The portion of the stroke of the piston 
when the valve closes the steam port for the admission 
of steam to the cylinder. 

Cylinder Clearance. The space between the piston 
and cylinder-head and valve-face when the piston is at 
the beginning of its stroke. 

Exhaust Lap. The amount of valve that extends 
over the inside edges of the steam ports when the valve 
is in the center of its seat. 

Exhaust. The release of the steam from the cylinder 
when the exhaust edge of the valve opens the port and 
permits the steam to escape to the exhaust passage. 

Expansion. The expanding of the steam in the cylin¬ 
der after the valve closes the port for admission. 

• Heating Surface. All surfaces having water on one 
side and fire or heated gases on the other. 

Heat Unit. A quantity of heat that will raise the 
temperature of one pound of water one degree or from 
39 0 to 40° Fahr. 

Horse Power. A power that will raise 33,000 pounds 
one foot high in one minute, or its equivalent. 

Inside Clearance. The amount the valve fails to 
cover the inside edges of the steam port when the valve 
is in the center of its seat. 

Lap. The amount of valve that extends over the out¬ 
side edges of the steam ports when the valve is in the 
center of its seat. 


88 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 

Lead. The amount of opening of the steam port 
when the piston is at the beginning of its stroke. 


LUBRICATION. 

Question i. What produces friction and what is the 
result of excessive friction ? 

Answer. The movement of one body over another 
on the surface which it moves and the roughness of the 
surfaces in contact, the nature of the bodies and the pres¬ 
sure holding them together. The result of friction is 
that energy must be expended to overcome it and heat 
is produced. 

Question 2. What is lubrication and its objects? 

Answer. Lubrication is the introducing of oils or 
other lubricants between two surfaces, which serve to 
keep the bearings separated and reduce the friction and 
resistance. 

Question 3. What examination should be made by 
an engineer to insure successful lubrication? 

Answer. He should examine all oil-holes, know they 
are open and that all bearings show signs of being 
properly lubricated and that the oil reaches the bearings 
intended. He should know that the sponging in truck- 
boxes and cellars is in contact with the journals and the 
waste on top of driving boxes has not been disturbed 
to allow grit or dirt to get to the bearings. If Elwin 
Automatic Lubricators are used in driving box cellars 
see that the indicators show there is sufficient grease to 
make the trip and that the follower in the cellar is free 


MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 89 


to force the grease through the holes in the perforated 
plate and that the plugs are screwed down in the rod 
grease-cups to insure the pins running cool, if grease is 
used on pins. 

Question 4. How should feeders of oil cups be ad¬ 
justed? 

Answer. They should be adjusted to feed oil posi¬ 
tively and just enough to lubricate the bearings properly. 

Question 5. Why is it bad practice to keep engine 
oil close to a boiler in warm weather? 

Answer. Because it increases the temperature of the 
oil and makes it much thinner which brings it that much 
nearer the flashing point, and the nearer the oil is to the 
flashing point, the less are its lubricating qualities. 

Question 6 . In what manner would you care for hot 
bearings when discovered on the road? 

Answer. Would cool them off and see they were 
properly packed and lubricated before starting again. If 
it was a hot driving box would relieve it of part of its 

load by placing a block between spring saddle and frame 

• 

if necessary. 

Question 7. What kind of oil should be used on hot 
bearings ? 

Answer. If the bearing* was too hot to be lubricated 
with engine oil would use valve oil until it would run 
cool. 

Question 8. At completion of trip what is necessary? 

Answer. To get the running temperature of the bear¬ 
ings and examine the sponging in the boxes and cellars 
or satisfy myself that the bearings and packing are all 
right. 


90 MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 


Question 9. How would you determine what boxes 
to report “examined?” Why not report all boxes ex¬ 
amined ? 

Answer. Determine boxes to be examined by their 
high temperature and the condition of sponging and 
brass. Would not report all.boxes because the box that 
was running cool could not be improved on and it would 
only mean expense and loss of oil to the company. 

1 

Question 10. Why is it bad practice to disturb the 
packing on top of driving and engine truck boxes with 
spout of oil-can when oiling engine ? 

Answer. It allows the dirt and grit to be carried 
down to the bearing^with the oil, increases the friction 
and produces a hot bearing. 

Question 11. How do you adjust grease-cups as ap¬ 
plied to rods? 

Answer. Loosen jamb-nut and screw down on the 
plug until the pressure of the plug on the grease forces 
it to the bearing. Just put pressure enough on the 
grease to meet the requirements of the service. 

Question 12. Is it usual for pins to run warmer when 
using grease? 

Answer. Yes, the friction of the grease on the pins 
will cause them to run at a higher temperature than when 
oil is used. This is due to the difference in the friction 
of fluids and solids the grease being a solid creates 
greater friction on the pins. 

Question 13. What effect does too much pressure 
produce ? 

Answer. It produces increased friction and a waste 
of grease. Therefore it is best to screw down on the 


MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 91 


grease-cups just before leaving on a trip so the stored 
up energy of the grease will not be expended before 
leaving the terminal and a supply of grease will be in¬ 
sured to the bearing. 

Question 14. Is it necessary to use oil with grease on 
crank-pins ? 

Answer. No, it is not; grease will only be softened 
by the use of oil or water and is not necessary, but would 
be a waste of lubricant. 

Question 15. Why should engine oil not be used on 
valves or cylinders? 

Answer. Because it has a low flashing temperature 
and is not a good lubricant for hot surfaces, it burns on 
the steam passages, packing rings and valve strips, caus¬ 
ing them to gum and stick. 

Question 16. At what temperature does engine oil 
lose its lubricating qualities ? Valve oil ? 

Answer. At its flashing point which is about 385 
degrees for engine oil and 600 to 650 degrees for valve 
oil. 

Question 17. How and by what means are valves, 
cylinders, and air-pumps lubricated? 

Answer. By the use of valve oil fed to the steam 
chests and cylinders by means of lubricators either hy¬ 
drostatic or force-feed ; occasionally graphite is used with 
cups provided for introducing it to the cylinders and 
valve surfaces. 

Question 18. How should the lubricator be filled? 

Answer. First see that the cup is clean and free from 
any foreign matter likely to clog up any of the openings 
or lodge on the seats of the valves and prevent their clos- 


92 


MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS—THIRD YEAR 


ing. If the cup were dirty would blow steam through it 
before filling. Would fill the cup full of clean oil if had 
oil enough. If not would fill the balance with clean 
water, open water valve and steam valve wide open. 
When the sight-feed glasses and condenser were filled 
with water would open feed valves to regulate the supply 
of oil to the cylinders. 

Question 19. After filling lubricator what should be 
done ? 

Answer. Open water valve and steam valve until 
water filled the condensing chamber and sight-feed 
glasses. 

Question 20. How long before leaving terminals 
should the feed valves be opened? 

Answer. Depending on the service and the profile of 
the road, just long enough to have the valve seats and 
cylinder walls lubricated. 

Question 2i. How many drops should be fed per 
minute ? 

► * 

Answer. According to the size of the drop and the 
speed. Usually from 4 to 8 to the cylinders and one per 
minute to the air-pump will be sufficient. 

Question 22. Why is it bad practice to carry water 
too high in the boiler? 

Answer. Because the steam is wet and destroys the 
lubrication and is less effective than dry steam; also 
uses more water on account of the water being cafried 
to the cylinders with the steam instead of being evap¬ 
orated in the boiler, requires more water to be supplied to 
the boiler at a lower temperature, and an increased fuel 
consumption. 


MECHANICAL EXAMINATIONS-THIRD YEAR 93 


Question 23. When valves appear dry when using 
steam, and lubricator is working all right, what would 
you do to relieve conditions? 

Answer. This is an indication of a hold-up of oil in 
the oil-pipe due to the steam-chest pressure being greater 
than the lubricator pressure. Would ease off or partly 
close the throttle and drop lever into full gear; this would 
reduce the steam chest pressure and allow the oil and 
water in the oil-pipes to reach the valve seats and cylin¬ 
ders. . • 



if 





Evolution of the Locomotive 

Setting Valves 
Link. Motion Tables 
The Locomotive Boiler 
Preparing Timetables 
Economy Rules 
Don’ts 

Practical Hints 
Etc. 



Ur Against It 



EVOLUTION OF THE LOCOMOTIVE 

Historical Sketch 

With railroad trains being drawn overland so rapidly 
that it is possible for the passenger to eat his luncheon 
in Chicago on the one day and to break his fast in New 
York the next, it might appear to the lay mind that the 
limit of speed in transportation has been reached. In 
• view of the developments within a time compassed by the 
memory of living men, no student of transportation prob¬ 
lems dares, however, to attempt to set the final bounds 
,of speed. 

Neither will anyone attempt to set limitations upon 
the ways, methods and means of transportation. The 
past and present are too full of wonders to allow for ar 
moment the prophesying of a day which will mark the 
end of these and greater marvels. 

The governments of the earth -are seeking to make 
highways for man through the element which hitherto 
has furnished thoroughfares only for the birds. Road¬ 
ways on the ocean’s bed may yet be traversed. Even 
now man is seeking to so conquer and control electricity 
that it may be said before long that steam has had its 
day. 

These things in the mind, little wonder is it that the 
study of transportation perhaps more than anything else 
is occupying the attention of man. Articles by the score, 
and books not a few, have been written upon the broad 
subject of the development of transportation, which, put 
in a homely way, is simply the bearing of burdens 
from one place unto another. It is a somewhat curious 

97 


» 


9S 


EVOLUTION OF THE LOCOMOTIVE 


thing that it has been made possible in man}’ places for 
interested persons to see with little more than a glance 
that which it would otherwise take weeks of library re¬ 
search to impress upon the mind, 

;jc ;jc :|s ^ 

In the Field Columbian Museum in Chicago the prog¬ 
ress of the science of transportation is shown in a series 
of object lessons. It is possible for a man to enter the 
department of the museum set aside for the purpose and 
there in an hour’s time learn by means of the best teacher 
—the eye—the development of railway and water way 
transportation from the day when the first nomad moved 
his tent until this day, when time and space aie approach¬ 
ing annihilation in the ages of steam and electricity. 

It perhaps truthfully may be said that this exhibit of 
the Field Columbian Museum is unique. Of its interest 
there can be no doubt. Tt is the purpose here to speak 
only of that part of the exhibit which pertains to steam 
propulsion. The institution’s officials call the exhibit 
“The Museum of the World’s Rail Wav/’ The word 
“way” bears a capital letter and has a special significance. 

The exhibit was installed immediately after the close 
of the World’s Columbian Exposition by Major J. G. 
Pangborn, and has been arranged with a strict regard 
for the lines of transportation development. The stu¬ 
dent visitor passes through aisles and sees either the 
originals or perfect working models of practically all the 
engines and locomotives which marked the beginnings 
and the advances step by step in the science of steam 
propulsion. 

The surroundings of the exhibit are in keeping with 
its nature. In the rotunda of the pavilion is shown the 
emblematic figure of the railway, a woman riding on a 


EVOLUTION OF THE LOCOMOTIVE 


99 


pilot with a perfect model of a locomotive in her arms. 
The walls are covered with drawings and photographs 
supplementing the showing of the great iron and steel 
giants. 

The first idea of propulsion on land by steam is made 
known by a replica of Newton’s engine of the year 1680. 
The engine was reproduced from description. It looks 
in part not unlike a gigantic tea kettle. In its day it was 
thought by those to whom steam was but a name, that 
this child of the good Sir Isaac was of close kin to the 
devil. 

ijc jjc 

The Cugnot engine of 1769 was the first self-moving 
steam land carriage of which there is history. Cugnot, 
by whom it was designed and constructed, was a French 
army officer. The engine in the Field Museum standing 
next that of Newton is a full-sized working reproduction 
of the Frenchman’s invention. Cugnot was the first man 
in the world to apply the high pressure or noncondensing 
engine with cylinders and pistons to the production of 
rotary power. The inventor’s mind was of military bent 
and he used his knowledge of steam and mechanics in 
the making of this engine for the purpose of moving 
artillery. Like the Newton engine, the boiler part re¬ 
sembles an overgrown tea kettle with three wheels and 
a wagon bed as an annex. 

From Cugnot’s invention we jump to that of William 
Murdock, which was responsible for the first propulsion 
on land in England. Murdock was James Watt’s assist¬ 
ant, and as Watt was known as a somewhat bigoted op¬ 
ponent of the high-pressure engine idea, Murdock 
worked at night in order that his line of thought and his 
effort to produce a practical engine might not be known 


100 


EVOLUTION OF THE LOCOMOTIVE 


to his chief. His locomotive had a single vertical cylin¬ 
der, the piston rod being connected with one end of a 
beam vibrating on a joint at the other. A connecting 
rod was jointed to the beam close to its working end and 
turned a crank in the axle of a pair of driving wheels. 
The cylinder was half-immersed in a copper boiler, 
through which a flue passed obliquely, the heat being 
supplied by a spirit lamp beneath. 

All sorts of curious stories were told of the first ap¬ 
pearance of Murdock’s engine. It was said that people 
were “frightened into spasms” by the terror inspired 
when they saw it approach. As a matter of fact, it prob¬ 
ably was far from terrific in its aspect, and certainly its 
speed could not have been great with the power gen¬ 
erated bv the heat of the small lamp. 

The Field Columbian Museum owns the original cars 
and the original track which were used in connection 
with the “Trevithick,” the first locomotive that ever ran 
on rails. The date of the Trevithick is the year 1800. 
Richard Trevithick is known as the father of the loco¬ 
motive. The museum possesses a full-size working re¬ 
production of this his first effort at locomotive building. 

It has been said that because of the showing of “the 
non-necessity for condensing water, the cylindrical 
boiler, the simplest form of crank, the absence of mason 
work for engine and boiler flues, and because its porta¬ 
bility and power of locomotion so nearly met require¬ 
ments, this engine should be called the first high-pressure 
locomotive.” 

An idea may be gained of the extent of the exhibit in 
the hall of the “World’s Rail Way” by barring minute 
description and giving in order of invention and produc¬ 
tion the names, with a few words of description, of the 


EVOLUTION OF THE LOCOMOTIVE 


101 


steam power engines that followed the Trevithick. Such 
a list, however, in this article is necessarily limited to 
the more important inventions. There are nearly a 
score which must be passed. A large number of the 
engines and locomotives shown are the original ma¬ 
chines, while all the others are working reproductions. 

»L» »'» • 

rf» 

Following the second Trevithick, which came in 1802, 
we have the “Evans” of 1804 and the “Brunton” of 1812, 
which had legs to overcome the difficulty of getting suf¬ 
ficient adhesion. This engine looks not unlike a gigantic 
grasshopper. The Hedley engine, which followed the 
Brunton, first demonstrated the possibility of making 
progress with smooth wheels on smooth rails. 

One of the most interesting engines to Americans in 
the entire exhibit is Peter Cooper’s “Tom Thumb,” 
which was the first locomotive built and the first to draw 
a car on the American continent. Then are shown in 
close order Stourbridge’s Lion, Stephenson’s Rocket, 

Hackworth’s Sanspareil and Ericsson’s Novelty. 

* 

A A A 

*j% ^ ^ 

The “Best Friend” was the first locomotive built in 
America for actual service. Peter Cooper’s Tom Thumb 
made one or two trips, but they were in the nature of 
trials. The Best Friend in the museum exhibit is shown 
exactly as it stood years ago, when it accomplished its 
work to the amazement of the multitude. 

“Old Ironsides,” which was built by Matthias W. Bald¬ 
win in 1832—the name Baldwin is known to-day wher¬ 
ever a locomotive is shown—did duty for twenty years, 
and the engine as it stands in the Field Museum is in 
nearly all its parts the original machine of two genera¬ 
tions ago.. 


102 


EVOLUTION OF THE LOCOMOTIVE 


The original Rocket, built by Braithwaite & Co., of 
England, and imported to America in the year 1838, 
stands in the “Museum of the World’s Rail Way,” and 
has in it practically the same material that was put to¬ 
gether by the British workmen of seventy years ago. 
This engine was the original No. 1 of the Philadelphia 
& Reading Railroad. 

vjj 

The modern locomotive stands not manv vards re- 

-/ mt 

moved from Newton’s crude invention. There are in 
the exhibit wheels, coaches, rails and appliances, showing 
the development of these auxiliaries of the steam loco¬ 
motive. 

It may not be out of place to say that this “museum 
of transportation” is one of the best practical aids to the 
student of steam and its application. The character of 
the exhibit is educational, and such it primarily is in¬ 
tended to be. It is in keeping with the spirit which has 
inspired the collecting and the'arranging of all the ma¬ 
terial gathered for the benefit of the people in the depart¬ 
ments of the Field Columbian Museum. The expression 
is old, but it means much—the Museum of the World’s 
Rail Way is an object lesson. 

In no industry perhaps does the United States enjoy 
a more remarkable ascendancy over the rest of the world, 
than in its railway service. At the close of the last cen¬ 
tury North America had no less than 220.800 miles of 
track in operation, while the total for Europe, Asia, 
Africa, Australia and South America was only a trifle 
greater—about 270,000 miles. The United States then 
had a mile of road for every 383 inhabitants, Europe one 
for every 2,267 and British India one for every 12,400. 
This country invented the parlor, sleeping and dining 


EVOLUTION OF THE LOCOMOTIVE 


103 


cars, the pressed steel freight car, many of the best fea¬ 
tures of the modern locomotive, the air brake, the auto¬ 
matic coupler and a host of related devices and it runs 
the fastest long-distance trains. 

One of the most marvelous developments in the whole 
• railroad system is that which has taken place at the head 
of a train in the last seventy years. The best locomotives 
to-day are about four times as long as the De Witt Clin¬ 
ton (1831), a foot or two higher, have drivers that are 
72 (or even 80) inches in diameter instead of only 54, 
and carry 200 pounds of steam instead of only 80. But 
these figures afford no idea of the real gain that has been 
effected in power. 

Relative to the other features, the boiler has grown ab¬ 
normally, while the smokestack has actually diminished 
in size. Tn the De Witt Clinton the smokepipe was as 
big as the boiler. One does not realize what modern 
science has done for this type of engine until he is told 
that it has a pull from 16 to 30 tons, as against 919 
pounds. A locomotive built not long ago for the Santa 
Fe road weighed 13 y/ 2 tons. Trevithick’s engine, built 
just a century ago, weighed five! Stephenson’s “Rocket” 
( 1829) was several hundred pounds lighter. Even be¬ 
tween 1850 and 1860 the average weight of a passenger 
locomotive was twenty tons and of a freight engine 
thirty. 

ADVANCE OF AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVES. 

One of the first advances in American locomotive con¬ 
struction was to mount the front end of the boiler by a 
stout pivot upon a small independent truck or bogie. 
Previously the forward wheels were secured to the whole 
frame. That plan made the machine exceedingly rigid 


104 


EVOLUTION OF THE LOCOMOTIVE 


and awkward on sharp curves, where derailment often 
resulted. Another improvement was the “link motion” 
for reversing, for which the credit has been claimed 
both for an American, James, and for Stephenson. A 
more even distribution of weight on the wheels was se¬ 
cured by another Yankee notion, “equalizing levers.” 

“The locomotive is still in a state of evolution, and 
those who operate it are changing not only in the partic¬ 
ulars of their duties, but in their aspirations and lives. 
The engineers and firemen of early days' bore little re¬ 
semblance to their brothers of the present period. The 
latter have not only personally acquired greater skill, but 
they possess also the accumulated experience of those 
who have gone before them. It is no exaggeration to 
say that the fireman of today, even if a novice, is much 
superior in capacity to the engineers who had charge 
for a long time after railways were first operated. The 
first enginemen were by trade blacksmiths and mechan¬ 
ics, who understood something about metals and ma¬ 
chinery, but were ignorant of the uses of steam or the 
future possibilities of the locomotive. It was necessary 
to train men for the position. This process has been 
going on with ever accelerated speed from the first day 
up to the present moment. There is no end to the road. 
It grows wider and the horizon expands with each ad¬ 
vancing step. 

The firemen and engineers of railways constitute 
a highly trained class of men. Their knowledge and 
usefulness will increase with time and further experi¬ 
ence. It is only reasonable to believe this because we 
know that possession of knowledge only intensifies the 
desires of men in this direction. Its acquisition by an 
ambitious man creates an unquenchable thirst for fur- 


SETTING LOCOMOTIVE VALVES 


105 


ther light. His mind expands with his opportunities in 
this direction until the vacuum of the brain appears so 
much greater than its filled space that the wisest man 
becomes despondent at the meagerness and superficiality 
of his knowledge. It is only the supremely ignorant 
man whose mind is at rest.” 

The evolution of the engineer has been no less re¬ 
markable than that of the powerful and vast “power¬ 
house on wheels” known as the modern American loco¬ 
motive. Nor has the limit of either the man or the ma¬ 
chine been reached. Hence greater ability, knowledge, 
experience and skill are absolutely essential, necessitat¬ 
ing closer application on the part of twentieth century 
enginemen. 

This, in turn, makes necessary the specialization of the 
subject of locomotive engineering, and, on the part of 
intelligent, progressive men, the supplementing of their 
experience with special technical knowledge. 

Men alive to the needs of the time, to the progress of 
events and the evolutions now taking place, will not fail 
to appreciate and profit by the information which follows. 


SETTING LOCOMOTIVE VALVES. 

A pretty* clear explanation of valve setting is given 
by D. B. Dixon in his valuable little reference book. He 
says: 

“Setting the valves of a locomotive is nothing more 
or less than setting the valves of four ordinary slide- 
valve stationary engines, two to run in one direction 
and two to run in another or opposite direction. It is 


106 


SETTING LOCOMOTIVE VALVES 


true, an obstacle to easy and quick setting exists in the 
locomotive not usually found in a stationary engine— 
namely, the link. 

There are four stages in the career of a slide-valve 
and piston while making one stroke ; they are: 

Admission of steam to the cylinder. 

Cut-off of steam from the cylinder. 

Release of steam from the cylinder. 

Compression of steam in the cylinder by reason of th* 
exhaust closing before the piston reaches the end of the 
stroke. 

Cutting off short means exhausting too early, and 
there is a limit to the point of cut-off where economy is 
an object. 

Shifting Link .—With a shifting link the lead of the 
valve increases as the reverse lever is hooked back, or 
as expansion increases, and a valve to which no lead is 
given when it is set will gain about 3-32 of an inch 
when the lever is hooked back into the 3-inch notch. 

Stationary Link .—With a stationary link, where a 
radius-bar is used to connect the link-block to the lower 
rocker-arm, the lead never changes; it is constant at 
any point of cut-off. 

The reason why a shifting link changes the lead and 
a fixed link does not is owing to the angularity of the 
eccentric-rods changing by shifting the link, as any one 
can determine for himself by shifting the link to cut off 
at, say, 6 inches, and then, the engine being in the for¬ 
ward motion, disconnect the go-ahead eccentric-rod and 
lower it with the eccentric in different positions; he will 
notice that as the lever is hooked back he must move 
the rocker-arm more or less in order to again make the 


SETTING LOCOMOTIVE VALVES 


107 


connection. Moving the rocker-arm necessarily moves 
the valve; moving the valve alters the lead. With a 
fixed link the angularity of the rods is the same always, 
as the link is not raised or lowered. The reader can 
make a pencil sketch to illustrate this. 

“Should the valves not come square, the fault may lie 
in the point of suspension of the link; or the reverse 
shaft may be too close to, or too distant from the rocker- 
shaft ; or the reverse-shaft lifters may not be of equal 
length, or one may be higher or lower than the other, or 
both too high or too low; or the reach-rod may be too 
long or too short: or the link may not be an arc true to 
its proper radius.” 

Throw of Eccentric .—The throw of the eccentric of a 
stationary engine is equal to twice the lap on the valve, 
added to twice the width of steam-port; but with a loco¬ 
motive this will not be sufficient, owing to cutting off 
with the link. To illustrate, we will take a valve-seat 
iolA inches long, steam-ports i *4 inches long, exhaust- 
port 234 inches long, bridges 1 inch long; valve 8*4 
inches long, valve cavity 4*4 inches long; throw of 
eccentric 5 inches; end travel of valve 5 inches; lap on 
valve yk inch; lead nothing. 

Note. In giving valve-seat dimensions the length of 
seat, bridges, and ports is assumed to be in the direction 
of motion of the engine, and not in the direction of cross 
section of cylinder. 

» 

Now, in order to give a full port opening, with the 
link in full gear, the stroke of the valve need not be 
more than 4 inches—that is, twice the lap=i *4 inches, 
twice the width of steam-port—234 inches; but in work¬ 
ing expansively, with the lever hooked back into the last 
cut-off notch, the valve would not have travel enough 


108 


SETTING LOCOMOTIVE VALVES 


to give a steam-port opening with a 4-inch throw of 
eccentric, consequently we must increase the travel in 
full gear more than is necessary in order to get a port 
opening when cutting off short. In order to do this we 
give the eccentric 1 inch more throw, or 5 inches instead 
of 4, and make the valve travel half an inch past the 
inside edge of the steam-port when the link is in full 
gear. 

In cutting off short the exhaust opens too soon and 
releases the steam before it has done its full duty; this 
could be remedied by shortening the exhaust cavity of 
the valve, or, in other words, giving plenty of inside 
lap. But here another difficulty springs up; if we give 
inside lap to delay the exhaust opening on one end of 
valve we close the exhaust too soon at the other end, 
and perhaps give no exhaust opening at all if cutting off 
at the shortest point. This goes to show that the link is 
far from being a perfect device for working steam ex¬ 
pansively. An early cut-off and a too early release of 
the steam do not appear to be true economy, yet the 
majority of locomotives are now running under these 
conditions. 

Saddle-Pin .—The saddle-pin centre is not usually 
placed where it would seem naturally to belong—that is, 
directly over the arc of the link—but it is placed outside 
the chord of the arc in most links. The purpose of this 
is to counteract the slip of the link. In a standard pas¬ 
senger-engine link the writer observed it to be placed 
29-32 of an inch back of the arc of the link and in a 
standard freight-engine link of an inch back. 

Line of Centres .—In link-motion much is gained by 
preserving as far as possible a line of centres. For this 
reason, in the link before mentioned, the centre of sad- 


SETTING LOCOMOTIVE VALVES 


109 


dle-pin is placed several inches above its natural posi¬ 
tion, or at such point as would bring the centre of eccen¬ 
tric-rod pin, and the centre of link-block, and centre of 
saddle-pin as near to each other as possible. By raising 
the saddle-pin as described, its centre and that of the 
link-block are brought in line, and knuckling of the link 
is in a great measure avoided while the reverse-lever is 
in the cut-off notch in which it is most generally carried. 

Length of Link .—The length of link is not governed 
by the space under the boiler for raising it, but by the 
travel of valve; as should the link be made too long, and 
the sector notched accordingly, in full gear the valve 
would travel off its seat, supposing the seat to be prop¬ 
erly proportioned. But should the link be too long, and 
the sector notched for a link of proper length, the valve 
would travel all right. 

Traz’el of Valve .—The travel of a slide-valve and the 
stroke of a slide-valve mean one and the same thing, 
although if spoken of with reference to the stroke of the 
piston the travel of the valve might be said to commence 
with the piston just finishing its stroke, or, if no lead is 
given to the valve, just as the piston has 'finished its 
stroke. 

Suppose a valve of dimensions already given—that is, 
length of valve, S J / 2 inches; length of cavity of valve, 
4 x /2 inches; lap, ^4 of an inch; no lead. Valve-seat, 
io x 4 inches long; length of steam-ports, i% inches; 
length of bridges, I inch; length of exhaust-port, 2 l / 2 
inches; length of seat-faces, ij4 inches; travel of valve, 
equal to throw of eccentric, 5 inches. Now, when the 
crank is on its dead-centre, and the piston at the end 
of the cylinder, or end of its stroke, the end of the valve 
is at the outside edge of the steam-port. The piston 


110 


SETTING LOCOMOTIVE VALVES 


begins to move towards the other end of the cylinder; 
at the same time the valve begins to move in the same 
direction, and continues moving until the end just re¬ 
ferred to reaches the middle of the bridge, when it be¬ 
gins its return movement. The valve has now traveled 
\y A inches. Continuing its return movement (the piston 
is still going in the direction in which it started), it ad¬ 
vances until it arrives at a point 3% inches from the 
middle of the bridge. At this instant the other end of 
the valve is at the outer edge of the opposite steam- 
port, and the piston has completed its stroke. The valve 
still keeps moving on its return until the end reaches a 
point 5 inches from the middle of the bridge first re¬ 
ferred to, when the opposite end of valve is in the mid¬ 
dle of the opposite bridge and the travel is completed. 
The first part of this valve movement might properly be 
called “travel," and the last part “stroke." 

Let the reader take two pine sticks, make a valve and 
seat according to dimensions given, and get a practical 
illustration of valve travel and stroke as here described. 

The Eccentric .—An eccentric is but another form of 
crank, and its function is the same—that is, to give a 
backward and forward motion, or a reciprocating mo¬ 
tion, properly speaking. If we make an eccentric of 
5-inch throw we simply make a crank, the distance be¬ 
tween the centre of the axle or shaft bore of which and 
its wrist-pin bore is 2*4 inches. Such crank would give 
a 5-inch stroke; such eccentric gives just the same 
stroke—that is, 5 inches. The difference between the 
two is that the eccentric can be used on a locomotive- 
axle or engine shaft when the crank cannot, otherwise 
the crank might very often take the place of an eccentric 
so far as cheapness is concerned. 


SETTING LOCOMOTIVE VALVES 


111 


The eccentric is “eccentric” by the amount that the 
centre of axle or shaft bore is distant from the centre 
of the eccentric. If these centres are 2^4 inches apart 
the eccentric has a 4l4-inch throw; if 2 l / 2 inches or 2% 
inches apart, the eccentric has a 5-inch or 5^2-inch 
throw, and so on. 

Cam .—A cam and an eccentric should not be con¬ 
founded together, as their motions are not precisely the 
same, and it. is as improper to call a cam an eccentric as 
to call an eccentric a cam. 

Inclined Cylinders .—Some locomotives have inclined 
cylinders. When such is the case, and the valve-seat in¬ 
clines also, or when the valve-seat and the longitudinal 
axis of the cylinder are in the same plane, but at an 
angle with the frame, the lower rocker-arm must be 
set back in order to connect the link to the eccentric- 
rods, and that the end travel of the valve may be the 
same for both ends of the valve. 

If the cylinders incline, and the valve-seat be made 
horizontal or parallel with the frame, the arm need not 
be set back. Cylinders with the bore and valve-seat at 
an angle are sometimes put on locomotives. In the case 
given above, lengthening the eccentric-rods would not 
do, although it would enable a connection to be made 
with the link. 

Angularity of Eccentric-Rods .—The motion of a link 
is quite complicated, owing to the many and different 
angles made by the eccentric-rods with the plane of mo¬ 
tion of the driving-axles, and with each other, during 
one revolution of the eccentrics, and can be best studied 
bv observation, as most book explanations make '‘con¬ 
fusion worse confounded” to the novice in mechanics. 

Angularity of Main Rods .—The different angles 


112 


SETTING LOCOMOTIVE VALVES 


formed by the main rod with the crank while the latter 
is making one revolution is another source of trouble 
in determining relative positions of piston and valve, or 
of two pistons, of an engine. If we set the crank plumb 
the piston will not be in the middle of its stroke; if the 
crank-pin is above the axle the piston will be past the 
middle of the stroke, so also if it is below, as the main 
rod is the hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle, and 
consequently the longest side of the triangle formed by 
the rod, the crank, and the axis of the cylinder, or the 
plane of motion of the centre of the axle. If we discon¬ 
nect the crank-pin end of the rod, and drop it down to 
the centre of axle, we will find that the centre of the 
brasses is beyond the axle-centre; and now if we move 
the piston into the middle of its stroke, and raise the 
rod to make connection with the crank-pin, we will find 
that we cannot do it, as the end of the rod will not reach 
the pin. 

Let the reader take a pencil and paper and draw 
sketches showing the crank plumb, and also at different 
angles, and note the position of the piston while those 
angles are being formed, with the crank-pin above the 
axle and with the pin below the axle. He will find a 
great difference in the relative positions of crank and 
piston.” 

THROW OF ECCENTRIC. 

How to get the throw of eccentric, or travel of valve: 

Rule. —It is found by adding together the width of 
both steam-ports, and the lap on both ends of the valve; 
this product will give the exact opening of steam-port, 
about inch more being added to the above product 
so that the edges of the valve will travel about a quarter 


DIRECT AND INDIRECT MOTION 


113 


of an inch beyond the inside edge of steam-port, on the 
bridge, which is termed over-travel and gives more 
opening of port when working in back notches. 

example. 


Width of front port. ij 4 inch. 

Width of back port. i }4 inch. 

Lap of front end. I inch. 

Lap of back end. I inch. 

Over-travel . inch. 

Total travel of valve. inches. 


DIRECT AND INDIRECT MOTION. 

(See Figs. 3 and 4 on next page.) 

Fig. 3 is indirect motion, the rock-shaft being used. 
This link motion is in general use in the United States. 
A, the crank-pin, on the back centre. B, the full throw 
of forward eccentric, which follows the crank. C, the 
full throw of back motion eccentric, which leads the 
crank when the engine is moving forward. D, the 
eccentric-rods. E, the link. F , link-hanger. H, lifting- 
shaft. /, rocker-shaft. J, the valve-rod. K, showing 
the valve on lead-line on back steam-port. O, throat of 
valve. N, exhaust port. P, ’steam-ports. 

Fig. 4 is direct motion, the valve-rod taking hold of 
link-block by means of a fork-end valve-rod. A, the 
crank-pin, on back centre. B, the full throw of forward 
eccentric, which leads the crank-pin. (It will be ob¬ 
served that the full throw of eccentric is right the re¬ 
verse of that shown on Fig. 3. C, the full throw of 











114 


DIRECT AND INDIRECT MOTION 



Indirect Motion.—Fig. 4, Direct Motion. 




































TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


115 


back motion eccentric, which is also reverse to that 
shown by Fig. 3; still the valve is on the lead-line at the 
same end of cylinder, the rocker-shaft causing this 
change of position of eccentrics, as it is plainly seen, 
when using the rock-shaft; if the full throw of eccen¬ 
trics be moved forward, to the same position as shown 
by Fig. 4, then the lower rocker-arm would be forward, 
and the upper arm of rocker would be moved back, and 
the lead-line would be given to the front steam-port, 
instead of the back port; not like the direct motion, 
when the full throw of eccentrics moves forward the 
valve moves forward also; consequently, when the 
rocker is used, the eccentrics must be placed right to the 
reverse of direct motion to give the opening of steam- 
port to right end of cylinder. D, eccentric-rods. E, 
link. F, hanger. H, fork-end of valve-rod. /, valve- 
rod. J, lifting-shaft. K, knuckle-joint centres of valve- 
rod. L, lifter. M, valve, showing lead on back steam- 
port. 


TABLES OF LINK MOTION. 

Valve tables of link motion, showing the different ef¬ 
fects produced in the distribution of steam, with dif¬ 
ferent laps, leads, travel of valves, and points of suspen¬ 
sion, or locating the centre of stud on saddle. 

Table No. 1, of link motion, was taken from an en¬ 
gine cylinder 15 inches in diameter; stroke 24 inches; 
valve having no lap; face of valve being the total 
length between the extreme outside edges of steam- 


VALVE TABLE OF LINK MOTION—NO. I. 


116 


TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


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T& d 

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05[OJJS 

JUOJ^ 

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Lead on 

Steam Port 

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juoaj 

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Exhaust 
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Compress¬ 
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Exhaust 

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Steam Cuts 

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Expansion 

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Opening of 

Steam Port 

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ports 14x1^ inches; exhaust ports 14x2* inches; throw of eccentric 4 inches ; lead £ inch, in full stroke ; 
stud on saddle 5-32 back of centre line of link, towards axle; valve having no outside or inside lap, the 
length of valve face being the total length between the extreme outside edges of steam ports; the width 
of exhaust cavity, or throat of valve, being just the width of distance between the inner edges of steam 
portrocker-shaft being used. 













































TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


117 


ports; the width of exhaust cavity, or throat of valve 
being just the width of extreme distance of inner edges 
of steam-ports; throw of eccentric 4 inches; lead given, 
in full stroke, inch; rocker-shaft is used; position of 
eccentrics being nearly at the right angle to the crank- 
pin. If there was no lead in consideration, then the full 
throw of eccentric would be just at right angles to the 
crank-pin, or one-quarter of the circle from the crank- 
pin; therefore, with this valve, as the table shows, the 
valve is in the middle of its stroke when the piston is at 
the end of its stroke, and the valve closes both the steam 
and exhaust passages, and is ready, with the slightest 
possible advance, to open both for the return stroke of 
the piston. In referring to the table, we find, when 
cutting-off at any point of the stroke, that the steam 
will be admitted to the opposite side of piston at the 
same time; and, when cutting-off at half stroke, the link 
block will be in the centre of link, and the valve will be 
in the middle of its stroke, cutting off the steam from 
one end of the cylinder, when the valve will be just 
opening to admit steam in the'other end of cylinder. The 
table shows that, when the steam is cut off at half 
stroke, or any other point of stroke, the exhaust opens 
at the same time, for the same end of cylinder, and the 
exhaust closes, and steam is admitted in the opposite 
end of cylinder all at the same time; therefore, without 
lap we have admission, expansion, release, or exhaust¬ 
ing, and compression, all taking place at the same time; 
therefore, it becomes necessary to make the valve longer, 
so as to lap over the steam-ports at both ends, when in 
the middle of the stroke. By increasing the lead, it 
would give an earlier release, or, in other words, the 
exhaust will take place sooner; this will bring another 


113 


TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


difficulty, in the shape of premature or too early lead, 
for the same distance from end of stroke that release or 
exhaust takes place on one end of cylinder, lead would 
take place the same distance from the other end of 
cylinder. It is plainly seen that a valve without lap 
cannot be used for the locomotive, when using the sin¬ 
gle valve, as the exhaust or release does not take place 
at the right time, as it takes place at the end of stroke, 
and there is no time for the exhaust to take place prior 
to the end of stroke, and the steam cannot be worked 
expansively, without lap, for the expansion of steam in 
the cylinders takes place during the intervals between 
the suppression and release of the steam admitted to 
the cylinder. Lap of valve provides expansive action of 
the steam; for this object lap is given. Without lap, 
when using the common D, or slide valve, there can be 
no expansion, as the table shows, because then the sup¬ 
pression and the release of steam admitted to one end of 
cylinder, occur at the same time. There is no difficulty 
in getting steam into the cylinders, as the steam rushes 
in, corresponding with the travel of piston. After the 
steam has exerted its force, it is then required to have a 
free and rapid departure, by having a wide passage be¬ 
fore the piston has reached the end of its stroke. 

Table No. 2. —In referring to this table we find what 
may be called a short lap valve, as the lap is much 
shorter than is used in a locomotive with link motion, it 
being a 34th lap valve, having ^-inch on each end, the 
length of valve-face being ^4 of an inch longer than the 
extreme distance between the outside edges of steam- 
ports, the inside having no lap, the throat or cavity 
of valve being the same width as the distance between 
the inner edges of steam-ports; lead 1-16-inch in full 


VALVE TABLE OF LINK MOTION.—NO. II. 


TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


9310049 jo pu9 raojj 

890Q9O3IIIO0 pS9r[ 

'o _ 

a O vr VI (4 

t-H 

‘ 3 F I H JO dqg 

• 

l-H 

Lead on 

Exhaust. 

93[°04S 

M 

93tOJ4g 

4UOOJ 

t-H 

Lead on 

Steam Port 

• 

93t°J4S 

3{0Ba 

*g H* 

tH 

9^0048 

4QOJX 

t-H 

Exhaust 
closes, and 
compress¬ 
ion begins. 

93[004g 

qosg 

rt" t-teHoo HxHao fa 

O fO M O On ONCO VO H- 

p M M vi vi iv vi tin 

t-H VI 

9q°04g 

4UOJX 

A ^*0 Hxt-to i-to 

o ro N o On On 00 l>» tn 

P l<-Hw 

hH 

Exhahst 

Opens. 

93[004g 

qosg 

ri «H* HX)Hqo r4xt4x>. to 

O fOM O G\ 0\cc VO H -1 

a ^c^c^ivvivivi to 

t-H VI 

03[OO4g 

4UOJJ 

3 'SkD Hx 

y fO N 0 OV ovoo I>- to 

HH 

Steam cuts 

off. 

Expansion 

begins. 

93{004g 

qo«a 

ri *00 rfr) 

o fO ONNlOtON Ooo 

a M VI VI V V V V 

l-H 

93{O04g 

4U00X 

a H® hm 

o N 0\NlOC0N OOO 

a M VI VI V VI V v 
l-H 

Opening of 

Steam Port 

93[004g 

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03[OO4g 

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hH »-< 

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119 






















































120 


TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


C 

fc 

I 

£ 

O 

*—i 

H 

O 

a 

w 

£ 

HH 

U-< 

O 

w 

.J 

CQ 

< 

W 

> 

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> 


9j[oxis jo pua mojj 
saouauicuoo 

73 *-4xtt|<tHNHxc-lxHw-*N 
fl -< N C4 CO 

(-H 

2 [aiT jo <*ns 

'1 ^x'.tfx r«g -ngr-to 

h-t 

Lead on 

Exhaust. 

95[OJjg 

•fi al ra <n'?o >r'-o -rfa 

p CVjJ.'O *^JrH ^ -i i-iJr-< r-|r4 

HH 

^O.IJg 

■fj •nto ^>|co -oko ~n(£> 

3 ojI-O H--i — H H ' -1 “H 

i—i 

Lead on 

Steam Port 

O^OIIS 

jpeg 

Inch. 

S 

i 

JLX 

9 

TF 

9 

TF 

TF 

TF 

•A 

9510.11 S 
JUO.IJ 

1—1 

Exhaust 
closes, and 
compress¬ 
ion begins. 

95[oaig 

ipng 

o fO h 0 On xn co 

g N fl M H M H M 

t —1 

92[OJlg 

JUOJJ 

H»H?n-W< cd^WH* 

-§ M *-* O CT\ X>-VO <0 CO 

j^jC^C^C^i —1 
l-H 

Exhaust 

Opens. 

95lOJJg 

510^9 

o CO >-i O C\ t^VO to CO 

£)C4C4C9*-i>-'*-‘>-ii-i 
i—i 

ajpaig 

juoa^ 

• HxHNi-W< MM'W&I 

*7 M •-> O ON t>-VO VO CO 

Steam cuts 
off, 

Expansion 

begins. 

0 5^0.1 Jg 

510B2 

_rt JfO 

7 ; v-te H -4 in 

a N Cnniocon 000 

HHC4i-ii-i — i— >—1 1—1 

O^OJJg 

JUO-Itf 

Hoo Hm 

'g « On t>» vo co C 4 O 00 

j;- •—< 1 —« >—1 >—l *—« •—< 

t —1 

Opening of 

Steam Port 

9 5lOIJg 

'o ^00 M>)«|>j'-*£> U 4 r ,<J>N (to 

1-4 

95[0 Jig 
JUOJ 5 

t-5 *-* *H 

'OAfBA. JO [9ABJ£ 

pi 

flTtNHNNNHi- 
)—( 

‘HOIS 

-STtHpU JO 'JU90 J9<J 

h m 0\0 w c^. 

On t>* J>»vo vo vo co 

■soqojojs 

« C4 CO *7- VO NO t>»00 


Table of link motion, taken from an engine cylinder 15 inches diameter; stroke 24 inches; steam-ports 14x1^ 
Inches; exhaust-ports 14x2j^ inches; throw of eccentric 4 inches; lead % inch, in full stroke; centre of stud on saddle 
% inch back of centre line of link, toward axle; outside lap % inch on each end of valve; face of valve being }£ inch 
longer than the total distance between the outside edges of steam-ports, inside having no lap; the width of cavity, oi 
throat of valve, the total distance between the inner edges of steam-ports, rocker-shaft being used. 













































TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


121 


stroke, rock shaft being used; diameter of cylinder, 15 
inches; stroke, 24 inches; throw of eccentric, 4 inches, 
being the same motion as Table No. 1, except the in¬ 
crease of lap. In referring to tables, we find a very 
different motion, as Table No. 2 shows that we have 
gained the position required for the valve for admission 
of steam, for all the notches, nearly to half stroke; we 
also find a decided improvement toward working the 
steam expansively, as the table shows, from the fourth 
to the eighth notch. That twenty-five per cent of the 
distance that the steam follows the piston is worked 
expansively, from the fourth to the eighth notch. We 
also find the same difficulty as that shown in Table No. 
1, by premature or too early lead, as we find, by refer¬ 
ring to Table, that lead commences 1% inches from end 
of stroke, when working in the fourth notch,, and 1 l /i 
inches from end of stroke, when cutting off at half¬ 
stroke, or working in the sixth notch; and when work¬ 
ing in the eighth notch, or cutting off at 8 inches, one- 
third of the stroke, we find lead takes place 3 inches 
from end of stroke, causing a counter-pressure that 
would be a difficult matter to overcome, without the in¬ 
creasing of lap, when giving lead for the full-stroke 
notch. 

Table No. 3.—Taken from the same engine as that 
of Table No. 2, with the lead increased to 3 /$ inch, in 
full-stroke; we therefore learn from Table No. 3, in¬ 
creasing the lead lessens the period of expansion, and 
hastens compression, and increases counter pressure by 
early lead. By referring to this table, when cutting off 
at half-stroke, we learn by the table lead has increased 
over one hundred per cent above that shown in Table 


VALVE TABLE OF LINK MOTION—NO. IV. 


122 


TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


91TOJ1S jo pna raojj 
saoaamcroo pna^ 

q 0 « - N fOt 

HH 

•iinrj jo dtjS 

| «W r*|eg wg «g 

HH 

Lead on 
• 

Exhaust. 

a^atlS 

jpeg 

• |0 _|rj< J'l JM jM„to 

g <0*0 -l - -4x glp |“3 | -0 |-1 ” 1 - 

p >— » HH 1—1 "HH >«H Hh 

HH 

a?Iox>S 

JUOJ* 

• JfO _(tJ< Jn Jm JN„to 

g -nto 1 -H® °Vo ^ '"to '"to *V 

p NH -h HH HH 1 —« 

H-i 

Lead on 

Steam Port 

jpeg 

P H H C^|c£) «-'|. v 5 

K-t 

aiioaig 

jaoag 

h —1 

Exhaust 
closes, and 
Compress¬ 
ion begins 

ajioais 

^ NxMaoccH'Hci-tN 
•7! M - 0 CXCO t^-VD Tj- 
— MCtd'""i"i'""' 

PH 
<—< 

03[oaig 

jiio-tg 

• t-J® wW 1 --C'j -Im t-h* 

•3 fE -> O ONCO Tf 

h^^Mwmhhn 

H-i 

Exhaust 

Opens. 

0 ^oais 

Jtong 

030 . 11 s 

jnoag 

• H® H» MW* -‘•C'J HM 
g M - 0 G\CO t^VO rj- 

qCICIC^^-i— i— 11 — 

1 —( 

-• Hrf 

g to - 0 C\CO r^vo rt* 

qMMMl-l — ^l-li- 
HH 

Steam Cuts 

off. 

Expansion 

begins. 

93[OJJS 

• H^HocHoo Hm Hr 

g C\ N ic fO N 0 00 

HH 

o^ojjs 

jaoaj 

H® —tM 

g ■" ONNiorcN 0 CO 

b~< 

Opening of 

Steam Port 

9ito.xis 

■ Jo c*-to "to 

g *d® |" - 1 - CCH" ", - »rix v 4 x 

a ~ - - 1 

HH 

93fOJJS 

jaoag 

• «to "to 

"He** H" «&:»<*» 

p t—i HH HH 

1 

'OAJBA JO I9ABJX 

ri Hs© .to JtO 

g -4M-l--4xt-tei.'ix a '|-«)x '"1- 
q Tj- CO CO M CJ M M M 
►—\ 

•aois 

-starpt) jo -jneo 

COONhNO\Oi-icO 
00 t>»vo to to CO 

•satpjotf 

« N VOVQ t^oo 


Table of Link Motion, cylinder 16 inches diameter: 3troke 24 inches; steam-ports 14 x 1# .nclies; exhaust 14 x 2 y. 
Inches; throw of eccentric 4)£ inches; lead 5-16 inch, in full stroke ; centre of stud on saddle 3-32 inch back of centre 
line of link, toward axle ; outside lap % Inch on each end of valve, face of valve being 1inches longer than the extreme 
distance between outside edges of steam-ports, inside having no lap, the cavity or throat of valve being the same width 
u the distance between the inner edges of steam-ports; rocker-shaft being used. 











































TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


123 


No. 2; and, when cutting off at one-third of the stroke, 
we also find one hundred per cent of increase of lead, 
therefore showing that lead is not to be allowed, as it 
creates a terrible counter-pressure by the premature or 
too early admission of steam, which rapidly increases 
with lead, as is shown by the tables. 

Table No. 4.—Diameter of cylinder, 16 inches; stroke, 
24 inches; throw of eccentric, 4*4 inches; lap of valve, 
£4 inch on each end, length of valve-face being 1%. 
inches longer than the total distance between the out¬ 
side edges of steam-ports, inside having no lap; the 
width of throat, or cavity of valve, being the same length 
as the distance between the inside edges of steam-ports. 
This table shows the effect of 5-16 inch lead, in full 
stroke, with $/$ inch lap. In referring back to Tables 
Nos. 2 and 3, we find that the distribution of steam, in 
Table No. 4, is a little better than Table No. 3, and not 
so good as Table No. 2, as the period of expansion is 
lessened six per cent and compression hastened sixteen 
per cent earlier in the stroke; and premature, or early 
lead, takes place twenty-seven per cent earlier than is 
shown in Table No. 2. It is easily to be seen that lead, 
in all cases, creates a counter-pressure, by premature 
admission of steam, and lessens the period of expansion, 
and hastens compression; it also makes the period of 
expansion nearly the same quantity, from the fourth to 
the eighth notch. 

Table No. 5.—Diameter of cylinder, 16 inches; stroke, 
24 inches; throw of eccentric, 5 inches; lap of valve, %, 
inch on each end of valve; length of valve-face, 1^4 
inches longer than the extreme distance between the 
outside edges of steam-port; inside lap, 34 inch on each 
end of valve; throat, or cavity of valve being 34 inch 


VALVE TABLE OF LINK MOTION 


124 


TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


> 

d 


oi|ou}s jo pna tinuj! 
saouatiuuoo pvoi j 

• to "3 

-£• *1- f-Kt °i- CW *"fco 

C 0 0 

•-inn P dfis 

-T 5 -.'.NO -K3 J'l -hi 

>-H 

a 

o g 

r3 

o * 

H 

aqo.i is 

• 3 VJ J 3 J3 J3 

"g -I- » H 1 - 1 - I - 1 )- 

„ 1—| HI H-1 HN »— 

-H 

oqoaiS 

POJJ 

3 *n 3 __h| *3 1© _|3 ^J3 J© 

— -I-. “o H- 1 - H I " 1 

— >—« . v—< >—i ►—i >—• 

rO 

Lead on 

Steam Port 

o^oais 

vm 

-r J© _f© J© -!© J© J® 

4 H 1 - 1 - “l- V 

*-H 

aqoais 

juo.tx 

3 —to . ...Jm Jo to .o .to o 

Exhaust 
closes, and 
Compress¬ 
ion begins 

a^oais 

qoeg 

3 V.-.X ed-rf HXCI'XI 

d n n w ex C \00 VD lo 

aqojig 

jaoaj 

• -tM cd*t ccw 

CJ N >H C\ CYC/D X>- <0 

1—1 

Exhaust 

Opens. 

oqoajg 

stong 

-• i-W JCM* -to rr ! ^ wH* 

-g CO M M -< 0 CNVD 

gNNNNN»MH 

H 

'aqoajg 

jaoaj 

• Hxcebo -to -to rd-+ r'-r rd-t 

■g co m N i-i o c\yo t>» 

— — — 

•i 5 

6 .•3 2 “ 

s *g | *a 

V X J 

9>[0.X1S 

• 7 ; '-'’M—'W -to --+ri 
a 0 C\ N 10 cc N OCO 

—H C4 • «—< •—< 1 —' >—' >—< 

OqO.T)g 

I no-i4 

3 rJ,- d 

■g 0 CM>.iocobi OCO 

Opening cf 

Steam Port 

oqoaig 

qoua 

3 J'l " < ‘3 to 

•g «!^r 1 3 XH< ",-efcoria 

^ HH XH 

HH 

oqoajg 

JQOJ4 

• Ko 

"g tobo C, H coi't H-* »c|» ^ 1 - 

2 H H H 

HH 

"OA.JBA JO pATJJtX 

• ccto' to to 

"g Ki® -l- H n-H=OMW , e*o 

s co CO co to M M M 

4h * 

•aois 

-swip '8 jo ’jaoo joj 

rf" On *-* n CnO m ro 
00 x >-'0 lo m rr co 

‘saqojoj^ 

M N t VOVO t>»VO 



• ^ 




\rf 

r-« 

X 


u 

o 


rt 

a 

C/3 


cn 

a 

c 


<M 

o 

u 

o 

4-J 

02 


O 

■*-> 

O 


cc 


cn 

o 

.e 

o 

c 




u 

a 


o 


c 

o 


c 

S3 

c 


o 

3 

aj 


H 


15 x 2)4 inches; throw of eccentric 5 incites; lead 3-1G inch, in full stroke, forward motion; back motion blind having )4 
Inch less than no lead in full stroke; centre of saddle stud y a inch back of centre line of link, toward axle; outside lap Ji 
inch on each end of valve, face of valve being Y)4 inches longer than the distance between outside edges of steam-ports, 
inside iap >« in on>each end of valve throat of valve being % inch narrower than the distance between the Inner edges of 
steam-ports; a rocker-shaft being used. 
















































TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


125 


narrower than distance between inner edges of steam- 
ports ; lead, in full-stroke, 3-16 inch, forward motion; 
back motion, l /§ inch less than none, rocker-shaft is used. 
This valve gives a fair table, the distribution of steam is 
good; the perfection of the motion consists in the nicety 
with which its motion is timed, relatively, with the mo¬ 
tion of the piston. The movement of the piston is abso¬ 
lutely dependent upon the proper timing of the admis¬ 
sion and release or exhausting of the steam. We cannot 
get a perfect motion, as we have the back pressure or 
compression to contend with, if we give clearance to 
overcome the compression, that is, to widen the throat 
or cavity of valve, to overcome the compression; in 
consequence, then, the loss will be greater than the gain, 
as the release or exhaust will take place too early in the 
stroke, which will be a loss of power and a waste of 
fuel. It will be observed, by referring to Table No. 5, 
that whenever the lead is increased in the forward mo¬ 
tion, and the lead taken off the back motion, as in this 
case, the increase of lead will be less, when changing 
the engine from full-stroke to mid-gear. As will be 
seen, by looking over the table, we have about the 
same lead when working in the eighth notch, or cut¬ 
ting off at one-third of the stroke, as when set with 1-16 
inch lead for forward and back motion. 

Table No. 6.—It will be observed, by referring to 
this table, which is the same motion, taken from the 
same engine as Table No. 5, except the lead, it being 
1-16 inch for the forward and back motion, that there 
is no particular gain received by increasing the lead 
for the forward motion, and decreasing the lead of 
the back motion, as is done on engine of Table No. 5, as 
both tables show about the same distribution of steam, 


VALVE TABLE OF LINK MOTION. 


126 


TABLES OF LINK MOTION 




-3 

> 

O 

I 


9^cxx}8 jo ptm raoaj 
saoaoraraoo pnaq 

| O 

HH 

*3F!I jo dns 

HH 

Lead on 

Exhaust. 

9310JJS 

jpng 

*3 & P 

p HH HH HH HH HH 

HH 

93IOJJS 

jnoaj 

4 -fc-i. 

p HH HH HH HH HH 

HH 

Load on 

Steam Port 

93[0J1S 


9H°ajS 

jaojg 


Exhaust 
closes, and 
compress¬ 
ion begins. 

93l OJ -lS 

iiong 

g Hoc H ttH* 

d fON h O ONOO 1>~ to 

9310J1S 

juojj 

A 

g N» H*»r® b-Hao 

a n n - O Onco -t>* vo 

Exhaust 

Opens. 

3lOBg 

j. HMHaoH'fcclaoccW' 

-g CO M N « o 0 a\00 

gNNNNNNMI-l 
h-1 

9510J1S 

juoag 

91{OJJS 

31DBg 

9J I oa lS 

juoag 

oijoaig 

itong 

9^0J1§ 

jaojg 

• C3(Xf;|^-4lC5i«rt|^ 

g CO M M - o O O'00 

hh 

Steam cuts 

off. 

Expansion 

begins. 

Hn 

g - OM>.vocON o CO 

PC^HHH-H*P^»-<|^ 

HH 

• -iM 

g — CNNlorCN 000 

gC)MHHI»4»-IH«HH 

1—1 

Opening of 

Steam Port 

g H- 1 1—-<(.'0 

a — ~ 

HH 

A K i-° Hn-^m 

a ** 

—i 

*0Ap?A JD |9ABJ J, 

g vr, rj* ro fo N N M N 

HH 

•uois 

-s;rapB jo ju93 aaj 

On On — n On O h. c^* 
CO t>. t>»NO to vr> tJ- CO 

•soqo»ox 

** N CO vonO t^OO 


Table of link motion, cylinder 16 Inches diameter; stroke 24 inches; steam-ports' lSxl^inches; exhaust-ports 
15x2% Inches; throw of eccentric 5 inches; lead 1-16 inch, in full stroke; centre of saddle stud % inch back of centre 
line of link, toward axle; outside lap y t inch on each end of valve; face of valve being 1% Inches longer than the ex¬ 
treme distance between the outside edges of steam-ports; inside lap % inch on each end; the cavity, or throat of valve 
being M Inch narrower than the distance between the inner edges of steam-ports, rocker-shaft being used. 










































VALVE TABLE OF LINK MOTION-NO. VII. 


TABLES OF LIN*K MOTION 


127 


9qo.qs jo'pua cuo.ij 
saonauiuioo 

TO! JO dt[s 

| 0 0 

HH 

' 7 ! ‘°to„,_^ -Jo _ to„. .to . , - o 

hH 


Lead on 

Exhaust. 

8 >[ 0 .i)g 

V°£I 

Inch. 

1 3 

i & 

7 

8 

1 b 

1 6 

H-L 

IS 

IS 

I 

I 

aqoais 

JUO.IJ 

r* i (/) CO 

U n >" 0 Hl-< ~ 

£ ^ —C)J 0 

HH 

Lead on 

Steam Port 

8 flO.I 1 g 

qona 

A (0 iD k» ^ 10 

t—i 

8 qo.t)g 

inoaj 

4 

r ^ .a |>. CO CO 

r—< 

Exhaust 
closes, and 
compress¬ 
ion begins. 

oqoa^g 

> 101:3 

'S n-Hx^i^XLCboHD 

2 <N >- O GNCO I^NO lo 

>— imcicn— <— ip—ii—i 

JUOJj 

7 j etto Hx Mhnrbo i- v>x Hx 
p M — O ONCO 00 VO *-0 

>—(MCIH ii—i^“ 

Exhaust 

Opens. 

9>[O.IJS 

5fOt?a 

g 0(0 

7 J -Hxey® wjx^to-i- 
A COfON cl i-t o ON ON 

■—ii—i 

8 qO.IJg 

JUO.IJ 

^ CO CO 

"3 < ^ 1 —|»C|Q 0 W71CCH* 

- CO CO Cl Cl •— O O GN 

H- 

Steam cuts 
off, 

Expansion 

begins. 

9>[0Jtg 

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line of link, toward axle; outside lap l inch on each end of valve, face of valve being 2 inches longer than the distance 
between the outside edges of steam-port, inside lap X inch on each end; the throat or cavity of valve being X luck 
narrower than the distance between the inner edges of steam-ports, rocker-shaft being used. 











































VALVE TABLE OF LINK MOTION—NO. VIII. 

: Steam cuts I F Exhaust I ’ i 


128 


TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


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111 




































































TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


129 


except in full-stroke notch. There is a gain in tavor of 
engine of Table No. 5, as it shows that the release or 
exhaust takes place a little sooner, which is of impor¬ 
tance at this point. When working in full-stroke this 
gain will be overcome by the absence of lead, when 
working the engine in back motion, as there will not be 
any lead in back motion, from the first to the third 
notch, until the piston has passed the centre; the remain¬ 
ing notches will have sufficient lead. 

Tables Nos. 7 and 8.—Showing the effect of inside 
lap; cylinder, 16 inches; stroke, 24 inches; throw of ec¬ 
centric, 5 inches; lap, 1 inch on each end of valve, face 
of valve being 2 inches longer than the total distance 
between the outside edges of steam-port; inside lap % 
inch on each end of valve; the throat of cavity of valve 
being y 2 inch narrower than the distance between inner 
edges of steam-ports. 

Table No. 8 having no inside lap, throat of valve 
being the same width as distance between the inner 
edges of steam-ports. By referring to Tables 7 and 8, 
we find that both tables show nearly the same percent¬ 
age of release and compression, from the beginning of 
the stroke, for the full-stroke notch. Table No. 7, with 
V\ inch inside lap, shows, that when working in the 
sixth, or half-stroke notch, release takes place seven 
per cent later in the stroke, and compression begins 
seven per cent earlier, from the beginning of the stroke, 
than is shown in Table No. 8, with no inside lap. Table 
No. 7 shows, when working in the eighth notch, or cut¬ 
ting off at one-third of the stroke, with *4 inch inside 
lap,, that release takes place eight per cent later in the 
stroke, and compression begins eight per cent earlier, 


130 


TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


from beginning of stroke, than is shown in Table No. 8, 
with no inside lap; showing that inside lap prolongs ex¬ 
pansion, and likewise increases the period of compres¬ 
sion, to the same extent that release is deferred. 

Tables Nos. 9 and 10.—Showing the effects produced 
by increasing the throw of the eccentric. Table No. 9 
showing the effect of 4^ inches throw of eccentric; Ta¬ 
ble 10 showing the effect of 6 % inches throw of 
eccentric. Both tables were taken from the same en¬ 
gine, cylinder 16 inches in diameter; stroke 22 inches; 
outside lap £4 inch, on each end of valve, making the 
valve-face 1 y 2 inches longer than the total distance be¬ 
tween the outside edges of steamports; inside has no 
lap, or line-and-line, as it is termed; the throat, or cavity 
of valve being the same width as the distance between 
the inner edges of steam-ports; lead 1-16 inch in full- 
stroke. By referring to the tables, we find very little 
difference in the distribution of steam, as both tables 
show about the same, for the four points of distribution: 
admission, expansion, compression, and release, which 
take place about the same time in both tables. Table 
No. 10 shows again in favor of 6 % inch throw of eccen¬ 
tric, by the increase of lead and opening of steam-ports, 
as Table No. 10 shows an average of twenty per cent 
more lead, for all the notches, from the third to the 
eighth notch, and a less wire-drawing of steam, as the 
opening of steam-port averages ten per cent more open¬ 
ing, from the first to the sixth notch, than is shown in 
Table No. 9. The seventh and eighth notches show the 
same for both tables. We also find a loss of power, by 
counter-pressure, produced by the increasing of fifty per 
cent of premature or too early lead; consequently, the 


VALVE TABLE OF LINK MOTION.—NO. IX. 

I Steam cuts f I Exhaust | f 


TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


131 


9JO.T}S J > pU3 tUOJJ 

soauoumioo pyog 

* 

hH 

•}[nn jo dns 

*1 •"Werix -<-d Hx 

LH 

Lead on 

Exhaust. 

Di[0.qr; 

5[0U<J 

-g H- ho 

r*H *—« 

i-H 

9>[O.Tjg 

Ji.IO.lJ 

H n- ,HX, ^ 1 -5 Ho 

M4 »— < »-H ►H 

HH 

Lead on 

Steam Port 

ojjo.iis 

-p -tx H-t -W - ** H* Up 

ojo.ns 

JUO.tJ 

9310.IJS 

^ Hx r-j^ ^ 

hH 

Exhaust 
closes, and 
compress¬ 
ion beginsJ 

ccx x-r Hm t-to 

TJ - 0 0 CNVD l^vo 'd“ 

g cs N N i-chh 

i-5 

0>J0.tl<5 

JOO.IJ 

• 

•f 3 . ~xx|x 

a - o 0 Gnco v^vo 'd- 

Exhaust 

Opens. 

o>[oajs 

3I0BJ 

• «X C'M —tM HlX f~X 

•5, O O G\00 L-VO d“ 

r-NMOHMHHH 

hH 

ojo.xis 

JttO.IJ 

• ho 

•f? «X xH* i-> xX -4 m Hx 

c ~ 0 O CvC/C r^vo 

ri ri m *-< i-h *-i i- 1 <-i 

Steam cuts 

off. 

Expansion 

begins. 

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• *CD <P 

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a ON CO VO 'd* *-> Ox t>» 

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joug 

ojo.qs 

KIOJ J 

a "bvco xo rf- m — C\ 

^ ►— 1 »— 1 >-H l-H HH »-M 

Opening of 

iteam Port 

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d ^ - 

l-H 

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d ^ * H 

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• _tX>^|(O_0l„CO 

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hH 

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Q\CO r^vo LTp Lo 'd* ro 

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16x2><£ inches; throw of eccentric 4>£ inches; lead 1-16 inch, in full stroke; centre of stud on saddle M inch back of centre 
line of link, toward axle; outside lap % inch on each end of valve; inside having no lap being line and line; the throatj 
of valve being the same width as the distance between the inner edges of steam-ports, rocker-shaft being used, 















































VALVE TABLE OF LINK MOTION 


132 


TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


jo pua uiojj 
saauailuuoo pna^; 

a O ~ ~ 

j° d[ is 

• 0|(J5 C9fcO Jo to «|M 

-g -.’CO i-jri r-^) H-l 1-j.^jyaO 

a ~ 

Lead on 

Exhaust. 

8J[0.t)S 

• toco -|M Jn „to Jo Jo J-# Jn 
^ no to 

I—1 *-* 1 Hi >—< »—| H-l 

pH 

juoax 

• w co Jn j-o Jo Jo r* - to 

-g -j-c:|x to H H h P 

q h-i HH H-l HH HH 

HH 

Lead on 

Steam Port 


•g to JN -tto to -to -to -hit "(N 
q h *T» a to to to toto 

a^oijg 

JUO.IJ 

O -to Jn jN^-to to 
q to*T» 35 .« to 1- 

5—4 

exhaust 
closes, and 
Compress¬ 
ion begins 

o>to.tjs 

• _to _to 

i-’-toito-tH® totoxefoo 

q O ctnso 

i— iMMi-i.-ii-i—ihh—i 

o^o.qg 

JUO.IJ 

-i 

7] l-toXtoX 

.J - O C\0 C t>.VO 

i—( >—> 1—t t—1 —• >—I 1—< 

Exhaust 

Opens. 

ai[o.tig 

jpurj 

_j _to Jo 

-5 eax Hto x to Hx irtx 

q ■- O C\VD to- I-^'O Tf- 
i—( CJCli—**—1 

aipaig 

jno.tx 

rt Jo 

7j r-C-lr-iM-^MTtj-tl-IX |r-r-(XtoX 

q ~ 0 C\CO 

hMNhhhw-m 

Steam Cuts 

off. 

Expansion 

begins, 

a^o.ijg 

• J<s> «n|co 

g j-tMH't ""to r-tir-lx -to 

q O CO VO ■'f N OCO N 

1—1 M 1—1 *H >—I -»—t P—1 

a^oaig 

JUOJj 

-• tox> toto 

g O CO VO to" to m G\t>* 

p N - H M H H 

HH 

Opening of 

Steam Port 

9 'l°' l Ig 

• toco «to mm to 

g to-tf to- r-Sx -,-tox «to |-xlx 

q 

1—1 

ano.ijg 
1 cio.i.j 

• to^> ~to Hm to 

73 to'xxx H'-* H-'i Hcoix 

q M "* 

i—i 

•OAJCA J>jaAB.TX 

? />J Ho r^HO 

'g Hto A'J ’ 0 hH» -i- 

q O 7“ CO to to Cl to to 
1—1 

•uois 

-3;tnpt? jd ’juao aaj 

« f) tC rtoVO O »-* N 
C\CO L^vo *o *-0 tJ - CO 

•saqajo;j 

m n torj- tr,o r>.so 


Table of Link Motion, cylinder 16 inches diameter; stroke 22 inches; steam-ports 15x inches; exhaust ports, 
15X2X inches; throw of eccentric 6^ inches; lead 1-1C inch, in full stroke; centre of stud on saddle % inch back of 
centre line of link, toward axle; outside lap % inch on each end of valve, face of valve being IX inches longer than the 
extreme distance between outside edges of steam-ports, inside having no lap, the cavity or throat of valve being the 
same width as the distance betweer the inner edges of steam-ports; a rocker-shaft being used.. 
















































TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


133 


counter-pressure will give greater resistance than- will be 
gained by the increasing of opening of steam-port. We 
also find, by increasing the throw of the eccentric to 6 l /i 
inches, that we have increased the slip of link about sixty 
per cent above that produced by the 4 l / 2 inch throw of 
eccentric, as will be seen by referring to the tables. We 
find, by increasing the throw of eccentric, it also changes 
the location of the centre of stud on saddle, causing it to 
move horizontally toward the axle, which causes the in¬ 
crease of slip of link, the location of centre of stud on 
saddle, for the 4 y 2 inch throw of eccentric, being 3-16 
inch back of centre line of link, toward axle, the 6*4 inch 
throw of eccentric being ^4 inch back of centre line of 
link, toward axle, and in the middle of the length of link. 
All saddles are generally placed in the centre of the 
length of link. 

Tables Nos. ii and 12.—Showing the effect produced 
on the same engine, by moving the point of suspension 
less than l /+ inch. Cylinder 16 inches in diameter; 
stroke 22 inches; throw of eccentrics 4*4 inches; lead % 
inch in full-stroke; outside lap inch on each end of 
valve, face of valve being i*4 inches longer than the ex¬ 
treme distance between outside edges of steam-ports, in¬ 
side having no lap; the cavity or throat of valve being 
the same width as the distance between the inner edges 
of steam-ports, rock-shaft being used. Referring to 
Table No. 11, the point of suspension, or the locating the 
centre of stud on saddle 3-32 of an inch back of centre 
line of link, toward axle, it will be observed that the 
value of the back stroke admission of steam is greatest 
while the opening of steam-port, for front stroke, is 
greater than the opening of steam-port, for back stroke. 


VALVE TABLE OF LINK MOTION—NO. XI. 


134 


TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


a^oxjs jo paa okuj 
saoaauuuoo peag 

■5* _to ec!x 

a 0 ^ « N 

*31 an diis 

rH 

Lead on 

Exhaust. 

aqojjs 

qoBg 

"o f-|M *|N *n|x *o -O «oto «o|to 

a K ’^cal- V 3 cal-'3 «-jH -[-> -J-? 'ir' 

eqoajg 

)UOJJ 

"9 »>N^ -rtf® >"to 

§ W !M , -'3 Hx |.n|33 H« -H rH 

r—i 

Lead on 

Steam Port 

oqoj^s 

qopg 

r—i 

airoaig 

juoag 


Exhaust 
closes, and 
Compress¬ 
ion begins 

aqoa^s 

qocg 

aqojis 

JUOJJ 

. 

■§ HNr^MfcoHNH^ i-W 

a - o caco i>«vo 

*3 «*» -te H® -toe «!» 

a - 0 C\co r^vo rf 

hNNhhHmh' 

Exhaust 

Opens. 

a^oajs 

1[0VQ 

"§ -fc>i-H<x4x -toi-f* -iMi 
a o Cnoo r>-vo r+- 

1—< (L4 >—' ►—< t—1 >—• »—< 

oqoajs 

Itioag 

-?«to0r-faC-iX>4» 

a - O G\co r^vo rt- 

«—< C^ bH •—< H4 * - *—* 

Steam Cuts 

off. 

Expansion 

begins, 

aqoj^g 

qoeg 

to -4rxtex}» "|- !-+r«-fcrx-W 
q O JNiOfC" CU» 

1—( C^l >—r •—• •—1 i—• 

aqo.i;g 

JU0JJ 

• HcO 

-§ C\NiorOH CN X>» 

r} 

HH 

Opeciog of 

Steam Port 

aqoj;g 

qaug 

a _ to —f >j —to >o|>] -chu Hn 

1— nln -s— <->n —n csj,-c> -<to 

SJ ~ 

\—1 

aqoajg 
quoj >i 

• —to C3|'| to 

| f w 

>-H 

•a\pA j * 

a . -•to to to -oto 

-§ -toi-toc -l-Ml® H I-* H-* 
a Tj-r^N M <S M h-i 

*GOlS 

•sicnpB JO JU80 J3J 

0 1>» •-' C\ 0 — ro 

C\ t>. !>. to io rh CO 

•8aqo)0^ 

h N cO^t tO'O 


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2 


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c5 

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os 


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fr> 















































VALVE TABLE OF LINK MOTION—NO. XII. 


TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


135 


9j[0J}S JO pU0 TOO.IJ 

saouauiaioo 

Inch. 

O 

& 

J 6 

i 

1 

2 

TOT jo dns 

KH 

1 

Lead on 

Exhaust. 

©^oajg 

• 

t~f >1 CT>|-vj .00.0to .ft® <~1 m 

hH 

05[OJ)g 

JUOJJ 

'o —-oto >nto J5jco —Im 

a "•'"(Ml-'O CMI.-3 -|—-n —|ri ttja 

1—1 

Lead on • 

Si earn Port 

ajpijg 

1—1 

O^OJlg 

JUOJJ 

M r-te N&0& -S* 0 4 0 ** ** 

^ po l-'O |T-r (rH Jr-, 

1-1 

Exhaust 
closes, aud 
compress¬ 
ion begins. 

o^oaig 

jpsg 

• to 

*3 cj’co 

g M O CnOO L-VO rt- 

i—1 (T ei >—< —* >—i i—i <—i 

JUO.IJ 

J 

"q ’"Hf H-f CO’® rt.® H— i—B 

— O Cn CO r^vo •*+* 

►—i n m ■—i — i—■ i—i >—i 

Exhaust 

Qpcns. 

; 

0-IOJlg 

^dbo; 

r-i Jto 

wto '|-- J aoH3t} 

a - O cnc/o x>.\o h- 

i—(M m—i«p— ii—< —< 

9J[0J)3 

JUO.IJ 

7t HtHHHHdbtoco '°|—• —to 

a ~ O C\vo i^.'0 

—i N ('! -• it h « w 

Steam, puts 
off, 

Expansion 

begins. 

0}{O.I}g 

JO 

5 0 Cn r>. 

M N H — -H n 

05[O.llg 

JU0.1J 

• .to to 

-g «H* eoto t: |~ -4x "|- -H* 

2 GNt'iLoto-* CnV>» 

>—4 < 

Opening of 

Steam Port 

0^OJ)g 

J. _to oto «|'i to evi 

M 

HH 

o^ouig 

juojx 

• — to ~l'l Ho o,-i o,-j. —hj , 

•g » r> -|- -,o -to mo- to 

a - 1 

h-H 

r 0A|T?A JO [0ABJ£ 

• —to to to 

*g Hw-bo-l-tolxi to- H M 
a Tron m m n 

•UOIS 

-simps jo -^uooaoj 

0 f'- o\ 0 — m 

CN ■t > * •£>» er, to rg- ro 

•saipjox 

H M H io O 


2 

u, 

O 

CL 

i 

CO 

3 

c3 

xs 

.X 

0) 


CO 

o 

3 



X > 

Tf 


CO 


o 

34 

I 

s 

a. 

o 

■*-* 

CO 


CO 

0) 

3 

o 

c 


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o 

o 

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co 


a 

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2 

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o 



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p 


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inches ; throw oi eccentric 4y : incites; loau men, m lull stroke; centre'of stud on saddle % Inch forward of ceu- 
tre line of link, toward cylinders; outside lap % inch on cach'end of valve, face of valve being \'4 inches iomer than the 
extreme distance between the outside edges ot steam-ports, inside having no lap, the width of cavity or throat of valve 
being the same distance as between inner edges of steam-ports, rocker-shaft being used, 





























































136 


TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


It will be observed, also, that exhaust and compression 
take place on the front stroke sooner than on the back 
stroke, which is the reverse of that shown in Valve Ta¬ 
ble No. 12, with point of suspension or centre of saddle- 
stud located % inch forward of centre line of link toward 
cylinder,' which shows the greatest value of admission of 
steam is given on the front stroke, and opening of steam- 
port greatest on the back stroke; and the exhaust and 
compression take place earlier on the back stroke, vice 
versa from that shown in Table No. n, showing clearly 
that the proper place for the location of the centre of 
stud on saddle would be, for this particular motion, 
about on the centre line of link. It will also be observed 
that both tables show about the same distribution of 
steam, in full-stroke; while changing from full-stroke to 
half-stroke, and mid-gear, the change of motion takes 
place, showing the quality of the link motion derived 
from the locating the centre of stud on saddle of link, or 
point of suspension, as it is termed, the point of sus¬ 
pension being the most important of all the working 
centres, in regard to equalizing the cut-off or regulating 
the distribution of steam. 

Table No. 13.— Showing the effect of transferring 
the motion of Valve Table No. 11 to a 24-inch stroke 
engine; by lengthening the crank and main rod to their 
proper lengths; the eccentrics and eccentric-rods were 
not disturbed. Table No. 11 being a 22-inch stroke en¬ 
gine, the length of connecting-rod being 77 inches, or 
3^2 times the length of stroke; the length of connecting- 
rod of Valve Table No. 13, 84 inches, being the proper 
length for a 24-inch stroke engine, being y/2 times the 
length of stroke. It will be observed, by referring to 


VALVE TABLE OF LINK MOTION.—NO. XIII. 


TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


137 


93^oa;s jo pna cuoaj 
tJ90ayUHUO0 pso'j 

#k 

'TOI jo di IS 

| C*f «;;> 

hH* 

Lead on 

Exhaust. 

ojioaiy 

jpug 

^ -n CD -nlcD ~|A) 

3 -1- -1- -I- -1- -1- «|r> 

—i 

0>foj)S 

inojj 

'ft'-G — |>j 

a -i- -i- -i- -i- h- 

i—1 

Lead on 

Steam Port 

9H0J)S 

3j.onrr 

lUOJ^ 

3 I— I- H H 0| 3 

►-H 

a i-* i— i— i— -m3 

Exhaust 
closes, and 
compress¬ 
ion begins. 

9>j.uis 

>IDug 

• — 1-3 Hx -Am —cj 

•S ro n - O cmo in 

-MMMM.~w.__ 

9>joais 

Vicug 

•ft fflxHT'-H* -Cl-Cl H-J* 

- CO M - o OCO I '-. LO 

—i M M M M — — _ _ 

—Cl—Cl — ix 

o fO N - O OVO lO 

3 m n m m — — — _ 

i—i 

Exhaust 

Opens. 

>P*£T 

ojjojis 

in 04 g 

cclxH'f-M' —Ci —Ci -W 

d fON — 0 Csv? r>. wo 

HN N'IN-.--'. 

Steam cuts 

off. 

Expansion 

begins. 

91I0.11S 

y\DVq 

^ Nx-<x -ci 

75— Cv N LT, rc M o 
c ^-•-VO 

—H 

9>tOJl§ 

1U0.IJ 

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-g— CN K lo fO N 0 

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Opening of 

Steam Port 

•ft -Cl . -'3 _'0 «i')_ 

^ -|- *H 4-9 “ 0 

0 -l OJ JS 

inoi j 

£ 

7“ i / 3iX~l-^(N- , ‘£_ > l3 ...ftlNvM-, 

^ 

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'9AJTTA jo ioaejj. 

' _|cD 

-s HMH7 '-^NClXHC-fcO 
a rj-COAiM<NNMN 

•uoi$ 

-sjnipn jo into jag 

— CN — N O' 0 •“< CO 
o r>. t^.\C iciA^-rO 

•9aipio>{ 

« r) tCrj- tnVO X>»V0 


03 »~ 

£ © 
O 0) 
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£ 

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link, toward axle; outside lap % inch on each end of valve; face of valve being inches longer than the extreme 
distance between outer edges of steam ports; inside having no lap the cavity or throat of valve being the width of 
thedintance between the inner edges of steam-port3, rocker-shafts being used. 


















































138 


TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


Table No. 13, that the location of centre of saddle stud 
3-32 of an inch back of centre-line of link, towards axle, 
is the proper place for this motion, as the table shows 
that an equal distribution of steam takes place for ad¬ 
mission, expansion, release and compression for the 
front and back stroke, also an equal opening of steam- 
port. We also learn, from Valve Tables Nos. 11 and 13, 
the distribution derived from the link, if affected slightly 
by the length of connecting-rod and throw of crank; as 
we find, by lengthening the crank 2 inches, and connect¬ 
ing rod 7 inches, we have gained an increase for the 
front stroke, and less admission of steam for the back 
stroke, than that shown in Table No. 11, with a shorter 
connecting-rod and crank; the eccentrics required the 
same position on the axle for both engines, also the same 
length of eccentric-rods precisely; therefore, the term 
link motion, so far as it involves the relation of the valve 
motion to that of the connecting-rod and crank, includes 
the proportion of the piston motion. 

Tables Nos. 14 and 15.—Taken from the same en¬ 
gine, showing the effect produced by increasing the hori¬ 
zontal distance between the centre of knuckle-joints and 
centre line of link, toward axle, to 4 inches, being 1 y z 
inches more than is generally given; cylinder 16 inches 
in diameter; stroke 24 inches; throw of eccentric 5^4 
inches; lead ]/& inch, in full stroke; centre of stud on 
saddle, of Table No. 14, 1 inch back of centre line of 
link; No. 15, inch back of centre line of link, toward 
axle; outside lap ^ inch on each end of valve, face of 
valve being 1J4 inches longer than the total distance be¬ 
tween the outside edges of steam-ports; inside lap 1-16 
inch on each end of valve, the cavity or throat of valve 


VALVE TABLE OF LINK MOTION.—NO. XIV. 


TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


139 


o^oajs jo ptm otojj 
sooaoiucuoo psoq; 

| o -*>m**D m ^ N 

HH 

j° <*ns 

q *—i • H'- -'I— Mlrv” w|» H— 

i— i 

Lead on 

Exhaust. 

9 ^ 0 -ny 

9 J[OJlS 

JUOJJ 

ri J# JM 

73 «fco n|to P « 

p •“!'-> H-< •—t • t—1 k-< >— 

1—1 

Mto-oto— fa 

— 1—1 <i[«- COfa ►—1 »—« •—1 *—< ' 

1—1 

Lead on 

Steam Port 

s^oajs 

jpeg 

05 ioajs 

juojj 

"o ^~T -Jr* HN 

a Hx 00 H H V H» 

W 

0 ^ -w 4, ^ - V 1- Hj 

H-1 

Exhaust 
closes, and 
compress¬ 
ion begins. 

«ws, 

Hxc-i»H®xkt , t-tao irtao-M 
"§ fO ~ 0 ONCO 00 VO to 
^cacaca>-ii— 

HH 

9 ^ 0 JJS 

juoaj 

'o ei|x -bi i-tM 

a ion w 0 c\co t>. l n 
1 —|NNNOi-i»hm»h 

Exhaust 

Opens. 

92 fOJlS 

3 [ 0 TJg 

• «(CD Mice >000Hoc 

T ION -H 0 On On t^-vo 

aNNNNHHHH 

1—( 

juojj 

p to N H 0 O OnCO 

1—iMNMNNi-ii-ii- 

Steam cuts 

off. 

Expansion 

begins. 

eijoajs 

95 lOJJg 

juoaj 

vftto - 4 N 

O CN N IT) ro ^ 

p N H M M H H ONt>» 

i— 1 

ri 

73 ^ OiNiorcd 0 

pNHHHHHMCO 

H-l 

Opening of 

Steam Port 

'©Wg 

3 [oua 

ri rjM 

O P Hn 

a « 

1 —1 

juojj 

HH 

*9ApjA JO J9AUIJL 

• Jto ,_«> 

73 n-«H* H-MarH'idxirtw^o 
a imo c^. n n m <s ca 

H-1 

•aois 

-Simpn JO JU99J9J 

Q C\H N O\0 « tc 
ON t>. t >-\0 LO to Tj- CO 

*S9tpiOtf 

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15x2)^ Inches; throw of eccentric 5)£ inches; lead X Inch full stroke, centre of stnd on saddle 1 inch back of centre line of 
link, toward axle; outside lap X inch on each end of valve; face of valve being lx Inches longer than the total 
distance between outside edges of steam ports; inside lap 1-16 inch on each end of valve; the cavity or throat of valve 
being x Inch narrower than the distance between inner edges of steam-ports, rocker-shaft being used. 













































VALVE TABLE OF LINK MOTION—NO. XV. 


140 


TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


Jonoais jo puo uioj. 
saouaauuoD pnoq; 

| 0 ^ *2f : 

jo diiS 

s 

HH 

Lead on 

Exhaust. 


ri J M ^01 JM ^ 

«|cO^>kO |cO jro 'jco 'o 

q —H’"I'-* i—*—i 

1—1 

aqo.ijg 

JUOJJ 

75 Mknirtlco |» |co |<x> 

q 

l-H 

Lead on 

Steam Port 

oqoajg 

"o ^ r ’+'> ^ C-N 

hH 

oqoajg 

Ptoaj 

'o r-lx r-frH -fa «rf 

3 ^ jrH i~<cO »Jc 9 Hc^ C^,(£> Ci'^D 

l—l 

Exhaust 
closes, anc) 
Ccm press- 
ion begins 

oqo.iig 

qoug; 

HhHt-loOMlrfHco iSOOr-i^ 

q CO i-i O GX GX 00 VO to 

t—| Cl Cl M >—(1—<1—lk-lt-1 

oqo.iig 

JUO.TJ 

• I'J 

'g i-kfHxKH't-to H . ecHwfoo 
q co 1-1 O ON CXOO VO to 
l—1 Cl M Cl I—• ►—i •—< *—i ►—< 

Exhaust 

Opens. 

oqojjg 

qona; 

A jco 

7 " C 5 lX H--r-frairtXX v "r-bo l vClX 
q cO r > "H o GX GXCO VO 

H-idClClMt-tH. >-i>-t 

oqoajg 

jnoaj 

4 ; wlxwlxr^MvrixeU^Hx ct!-f 

S con h o 0\ cxco vo 

1—I M Cl M C l >-i —i 

Steam Cuts 

off. 

Expansion 

begins, 

oqoijg 

qoug; 

^ cfl-t ’“H ' * Hci 

q •— Ox -t>. to co n 0 

i—l C^* i—i co! 

oqoajg 

juoaj 

• vcjao Hm 

73 i-h CnIsiocON O 

qN*-nnt-iw.nCO 

t—i 

Opening of 

Steam Port 

oqoajg 

e-N 

73 | M HH< .nl'X) - fc> . ko 

1—1 

oqoajg 

JUOJJ 

• inks 

1—I 

"OAf^A JO J8AU.TX 

ri . «|Sj 

73 HMt-fx H ede , e*0 H-'J 

q to CO CO CO M M M Cl 
—< 

*nois 

-sitnpn io ‘juoo jaj 

OGXidOXO'-cO 
OX !>■ J.'-VO to to .tJ- CO 

•soqojo^; 

H N 0 7 toVO i>»Xi 


Table of Link Motion, cylinder 16 inches diameter; stroke 24 inches; steam-ports 15xl^ inches; exhaust ports 
15 x inches; throw of eccentric inches; lead 1-S inch, in full stroke; centre of stud on saddle % inch back ol 
centre line-of link, toward axle; outside lap )Onch on each end of valve, inside lap 1-1G inch on each end of valve 
throat of valve being % inch narrower than the distance between inner edges of steam-ports; rocker-shaft being used. ’ 






























































TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


141 


being *4 inch narrower than the distance between the 
inner edges of steam-ports; rock-shaft used. By re¬ 
ferring to Table No. 14. we learn, by increasing the hori¬ 
zontal distance from 2*4 inches to 4 inches, between the 
centre of knuckle-joint and centre line of link, toward 
axle, that it causes considerable change in the motion, as 
Table No. 14 shows an average increase of 70 per cent 
of slip of link above that sh'own in Table No. 15, with 
knuckle-joint centres 2*4 inches back of centre line of 
link, being i l / 2 inches less distance than that of Table 
No. 14. We also learn from Table No. 14, that we have 
increased lead which takes place 54 per cent earlier, on 
an average, from the fifth to the eighth notch, than is 
shown in Table No. 15, with 2 1 / 2 inches distance between 
knuckle-joint centres and centre line of link, the location 
of centre of stud on saddle *4 inch back of centre line 
of link, toward axle, and in centre of length of link, the 
valve receiving the same travel as the throw of eccentric; 
while that of Valve Table No. 14, with knuckle-joint 
centre 4 inches back of centre line of link, the valve re¬ 
ceives 3-16 inch less travel than the throw of the eccen¬ 
tric ; also showing an average of 25 per cent less open¬ 
ing of steam-port, which is caused by the centre of stud 
on saddle being located t inch back of centre line of 
link, toward axle. It will be observed the greater the 
distance the knuckle-joint centres are from the centre 
line of link the greater will be the distance of the locat¬ 
ing of the centre of stud on saddle, in the same direction 
from the centre line of link, which will also cause a 
greater amount of slip of link on the block, and increase 
of premature or too early lead. We therefore learn, 
from Valve Tables Nos. 14 and 15, bv increasing the 


VALVE TAI3LE OF LINK MOTION 


142 


TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


> 

X 

C 

* 


8>{0.11* .40 pdo ttlOJJ 

seouotmuoD ■pvo r j 

l"o r\ "V-ccoot-bo 

3[un jo cIijs 

W— i 

Lead on 

Exhaust. 

9>{0.qc; 

_■ m b' (3 e 

— « J-Jo ”« I— "|- 

X — H 1 —i »-H 

9>{0.tlC! 

juojj; 

^ JN ^ 

t to H 

X *“J— —»J— H4 ** H4 ^4 H-4 HH 

-*-> 

a 0 

0 pn 

*2 

ci 

® «s 

CO 

a:[0.i;s 

0 -to i-W* «o“ “ J “ 2 J e:ioD r.icc «|cd 

»—< 

9>t0Jlp 

Jttoaj 

O Hoc i-w« ^ 2 ['j r-tocclx 

Exhaust 
closes, and 
compress¬ 
ion begins. 

9>[0.tlS 

,4 jo HB HXr-W» 

73 h ci c 0 onco vo to 

— CO M M M M M HI H 

Oh Cl 

JUO.tJ 

Hi-fHxc-bO t-bcH frf* 

■3 O O ONCO VO VO 

^ ci ci ci d *-h ►— 1-1 >-< 

1—1 

Exhaust 

Opens. 

9?[oaic; 

-I ou £l 

• _IO, Or-fMr-lMCC-f r-taO 

— °V '>« O C\ On CO VO 

r* CO cl CI Cl 1—1 <— 1 1—1 1—1 

1-1 cl M 

95{0.tlS 

1UOJJ 

• r-H< 

"o CO Cl 0 ONCO CO VO 

hNNMCIhhhh 

i—1 

Steam cuts 
off, 

Expansion 

begins. 

9>{0J[1S 

^ —*X -*M 

73 0 N 10 cc Ci 0 

gci>-i>-i»-ii —1 »—< »—1 CO 

Oh Cl 

litoaj 

• W-C Hm 

73 •- CM^iocOCl O 

< CO 

Oh 

| 

Opening of 

Steam Port 

9^0-tlC; 

^ (13 

73 -1- -<x u ^ ^ 

Oh 

9510I1S 

1UOAJ 

73 H** 00 -r.bi -M >«OJ 

2 N h •h^cmcocnjco M ^ -i.o 

hH 

•OAfUA JO [9ATLI£ 

• _to —hi 

•f; HciHx H c-toc cite Hcirlx 

a to, cO re fO Ci d ci cl 

h0 

•nois 

-stmpn jo •iitaojaj 

m CNm N CNO m cc 

On t>» t^vo to vo Tt* CO 

•saqojo^ 

h Cl cerj. 10 ,NO X>»CO 


Table of link motion, cylinder 10x24 inches; steam-ports 15x1^ Inches; exhaust-port \5x2% Inches; throw of eccentric 
W Inches; lead % inch, in full stroke; centre of stud on saddle X inch back of centre line of link, toward axle; outside 
lap X inch on each end of valve, inside lap 1-16 inch on each end of valve; throat of valve being X inch narrower than 
the distance between lnnor edges of steam-ports, rocker-shaft used. 














































TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


143 


horizontal distance 13/2 inches more than the general 
rule, from the center line of link, back toward axle, 
we meet with difficulties, in the shape of increase of 
slip of link, also premature lead, decrease of travel of 
valve, and also less opening of steam-port; while the 
admission, expansion, release, exhaust, and compres¬ 
sion show no material change, both tables showing 
the same. 

Table No. 16. —Shows the effect of changing the lo¬ 
cation of lifting-shaft, by removing it from above the 
centre of axle and placing it on the same vertical line 
of engine, below centre of axle. It will be understood 
that Tables Nos. 15 and 16 were taken from the same 
engine, no other alteration being made whatever, ex¬ 
cept the changing of position of lifting-shaft, which was 
123/2 inches above center line of axle, it being changed 
to 15^2 inches below centre line of axle, that being the 
proper location when placed below the center line of 
axle, the cylinder being elevated 7-32 inch to the foot. 
By referring to the tables, we learn that there is no 
particular gain produced by the changing of the loca¬ 
tion of lifting-shaft in the distribution of steam, as ad¬ 
mission, expansion, compression and release take place 
at the same time in both tables. 

Table No. 17.— Shows a slight gain in the opening 
of steam-ports, for the first and second notches, that 
being of no importance, as no gain would be derived 
from the increase of opening for these two notches, the 
full-stroke notches having sufficient opening to supply 
the demand for the cylinder; the notches at and ap¬ 
proaching mid-gear, are where an increase of opening 
would be of importance, as the steam becomes wire- 


144 


TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


drawn by the small opening of steam-port, which can¬ 
not be avoided when using the link as a cut-off. 

Tables Nos. 8 and 18.—Showing the effect of lap, 
both engines having the same motion, except the out¬ 
side lap. Table No. 18, cylinder 16 inches in diameter; 
stroke 24 inches; throw of eccentrics 5 inches; lap 24 
inch on each end of valve, face of valve being i l / 2 
inches longer than the total distance between the out¬ 
side edges of steam-ports, inside having no lap; throat 
or cavity of valve being the same width, as the dis- 
-tance between the inner edges of steam-ports. 

Table No. 18.—With 24 inch outside lap, shows that 
steam is admitted to piston 8 per cent further, when 
working in full-stroke notch, than is shown in Table No. 
8, with 1 inch outside lap. For* all the rest of the 
notches we find a gain much in favor of Table No. 
8, with 1 inch outside lap, above Table No. 18, with 24 
inch outside lap, as the steam is deferred to 3 per cent 
later period of the stroke. We also find, by referring 
to Table No. 8, with 1 inch outside lap, that compres¬ 
sion takes place 8 per cent later in the stroke, on an 
average, for all the notches, from the fifth to the eighth 
notch, above that shown in Valve Table No. 18, with 
24 inch lap. We also find that premature lead is re¬ 
duced to a proper quantity, by increasing the lap to 1 
inch outside. By referring to Table No. 8, we find 40 
per cent less premature lead than is shown in Table 
No. 18. By referring back to Table No. 7, with 1 inch 
outside lap, and T 4 inch inside lap, we have decreased 
the power of engine, as the table shows that, by adding 
inside lap, we increase compression 14 per cent, while 
expansion is increased only 9 per cent, and does not show 


VALVE TABLE OF LINK MOTION.—NO. XVII. 


TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


145 


9^0J18 JO pUL9 OTO.IJ 
990tnaica09 p99'1 

i—i 

T[nt[ JO di IS 

1 —< 

Lead on 

Exhaust. 

oqong 

spug 

9qof]g 

JUOJJ 


-g -tr> xfco ^ . f-l-K «[m 

Lead on 

Steam Port 

gqorig 


gqoijg 

Pioig 

sqojag 

jpug 

>—< 

Exhaust 
closes, and 
compress¬ 
ion begins. 

■§ ”h- | M rS'fvrhorr'e'Hxtoix-fce 
g CO M O O^CO r^VD co 

>-H M N N ►* «-I • 

oqorig 

: JtD U> 

Tj H I- r*t Hx XB* r~IX t~toC Ml® 
g CO N 0 ONCO C^VO <0 
M O N M >-i >— >-i *-i —f 

Exhaust 

Opens. 

gqoijg 

qoug 

-i 

-g _4 m H® 

rt « o G\ Cf\ t>- 

i—c m 

jnoij 

g HHH® H-frwrw* 

co o o ~ O G\ 000 

t—t 

Opening of 

Steam Port 

l 

qoug 

i-H 

9qorjs 

juoig 

|<2T£ , h«^H2h s .^«w 

k —H 

Steam cuts 

off. 

Expansion 

begins. 

jaorg 

CCBMB-too Hm 

■fi Gn b>. vo cO N 0 N» 

»-<>_< H-4 »-< X>» 

w-i 

ri —e> -4N 

■§ ■- G\ t>* co co <9 0 

g N w ►-< i—' ►—< >—< CO 

•0X^84. JO [0A.8IX 

• ££ 

r-to-tob4x'.cfco t >- i 75to-ft 
g CO CO <0 M N C4 N C9 

»—i 

•dots 

-strapn jo ju9D rgj 

O CN ^ o Gn 0 >-< co 
Q\ t>- C^VO to co rt* co 

•S9qD10£I 

m N co "d" chiVO t>*00 


2 

i_ 

c 

Q. 

i 

*-> 

03 

a 

a 

X5 

« 

0> 


m 

<D 

a 

o 

a 

* 


x 


o 

O. 

< 

s 

cd 


co 

a> 

a 

o 

a 

c 5 

D 

o 

fc- 


4 > 

*-> 

<U 

a 

5 


03 

O 

ja 

o 

a 


o 

•a 

a 

>. 

o 

•» 

a 

o 

o 

e 

u 

a 


o 

0 ) 

3 

a 




14 x2% inches; throw of eccentric 5 inches; lead 1-16 inch full stroke, centre of stud on saddle % inch hack of centre line or 
link, toward axle; outside lap % inch on each end of valve; face of valve being 1 y> Inches longer than the extreme 
distance between outside edges of steam ports; inside lap % inch on each end of valve; the cavity or throat of valve 
being x inch narrower than the distance between inner edges of steam-ports, rocker-shaft being used. 











































NO. XVIII. 


146 


TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


I 

z; 

o 

>—i 

H 

O 

S 

W 

£ 

>—t 

O 

w 

v-J 

B 

< 

H 

W 

> 

-3 

< 

> 


iaqo-ijs jo pua raoaj 
fiaoaoracuoo pisoT. 

• 

■3[un J° d ns 

—< 

Lead on 

Exhaust. 

— -— 

oqoaig 

qoug 

-3 MfcDCifM-fN - P « 

q •—jrl CMj^ COCO >-i M l-l >n HH 

M'- 

oqoajg 

1U0.TJ 

• . 

■5 «!d>c5,rj-,N P I- -0 

p l-l >-> »—I - • 

1—1 

Lead on 

Steam Port 

oqoajs 

qong 

►H 

oqoaig 

juoaj 

HH 

Exhaust 
closes, and 
compress¬ 
ion begins. 

oqoaig 

qoug 

a b-te>ci» 

h (C M >-< O ON ON U>»VO 

►H C4 M N M H h h h 

oqoajs 

JUOJJ 

” - r-fc] r-fc-1 r4?q ~H< 'C5H 4 

2 con H o ON CNOO VO 

J rl M N M H H H M 

Steam cuts 

^ Exhaust • 

Expansion Opens, 
begins. 

oqoais 

qoug 

■ k© to 

^3 ‘ n H C5 |-.r^r4M^ 

d co m >-i O On On x>-vo 

h « n cV co *-i *-i •“< *-* 

aqoais 

juojg 

• CO 

jz ’"-.-'M-tM'-srjrH 1 cr’-t* 

2 rc« h O On GnOO VO 

tO' r*-M O N *-• — 

oqoajg 

• cd^HrjiT-te t-$m 

-5* w ONNlOfCM 0 
^ f l t-H -t-t *-* <-• 1-1 C/0 

HH • 

aqoajg 

juoag 

. ^ rfrl 

& M CN N VO ro o O „ 

^ k-« i—• — *-• •“ * ' 00 

i—i 

i 

1 

Dpening of 

Steam Port 

oqoajg 

qoug 

-g tffeo HX «« Hfo Jo Jf M|® 

g HH H-l r-|rH 'rt H 

HH 

oqoug 

juoag 

| s 2f T S'HoD^«gHN»-peafco 

t—H ____ 


• »oJsO . . ^ 

V—1 

*84IUA jo ioaujx 

’UOIS 

-siccrpu jo 'ju90 ao^ 

O C\« ^ OnO H fO 
ON i>- X^vp VO VO Tt* CO 

•soqojox 

>■ N XC't VO VO X>-00 


Table of link motion, cylinder 17 inches diameter; stroke 24 inches; steam-ports 16x1^inches; exhaust-port \Gx2)4 
Inches; throw of eccentric 5 inches; lead 1-16 inch, in full stroke; centre of stud on saddle y a inch back of centre line o! 
link toward axle; outside lap % inch on each end of valve; face of valve 1* inches longer than the extreme distance 
between outside, edges of- steam-ports; inside no lap; width of cavity or throat of valve the total distance between Inner 
edges of steam-port { rocker-shaft used. 

































































TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


147 


as good a working table as Table No. 18, with y A inch 
outside, and no inside lap. We learn from the tables, 
that lap may be increased to such extent as to work 
the steam about one-third, or a trifle over of the stroke, 
expansively, when cutting off the steam at one-third 
of the stroke, leaving nearly one-third for compression. 
By increasing the inside lap, to work the steam by ex¬ 
pansion, to a later period, the compression will take place 
earlier in the stroke, to the same amount as expansion is 
deferred, the compression creating a greater resistance 
than is gained by the increased period of expansion of 
steam, as the pressure of steam is reduced and com¬ 
pression increased. By cutting off at an earlier period 
than one-third of stroke the steam becomes too much 
wire-drawn, as the opening of steam port will not be 
sufficient to fill the demand of cylinder, to accomplish 
much work. A valve may be made to cut off at one- 
tenth of the stroke, when using two valves, one as a cut¬ 
off valve, the other as a main valve, the same as the 
old fashioned hook motion, with independent cut-off. 

We learn from the valve tables given, that the distri¬ 
bution of steam is not affected by changing the width 
of steam-ports, by cutting them out, or narrowing up 
the bridges between the steam and exhaust ports, if 
the valve be changed also so as to have the same lap and 
lead as before the ports were altered; as we learn from 
the tables that lap, lead, and travel of valve control 
the distribution of steam, the valve controlling the four 
distinct movements of steam for each revolution of the 
crank, admission, expansion, compression and exhaust. 
The outside edges of steam-ports, with outside edges 
of valve, regulate the admission and expansion, while the 
inner edges of the steam-port, with inner edges of valve, 


VALVE TABLE OF LINK MOTION—NO. XIX. 


148 


TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


i 


9 qox}s jo ptia aiojj 
sooaacaiuoo 

f o 0 0 Hr M 

hH 

M n !T jo dijg 

T CCH* V.(x r-J^ ^ H-t «Jf >a£j Hr 

M 

Lead on 

Exhaust. 

oqoijg 

qonri 

"o rs- «l®r.tr ° ' 1 ° - ^ ^ “ A 
2 H- Ml- ~|~ -I- -i-oo 

hH 

9qo.xjs 

jaoaj 

7^ >«® >0® J-.kO H-# 

2 * H-« ® wlx — H r " L *-ji o|o 

!—1 

’ 

Lead on 

Steam Port 

aqoajg 

qDBg 

HH • 

9qor;g 

juoa^ 

t—1 

Exhaust 
closes, and 
Compress¬ 
ion begins 

oqoajg 

■f5 HHv-dXXHHNXrt' ' v.’x 

2-0 C\CO l>> t^VO H* 

i—I Cl Cl — — *—< •—• •—i ►—■ 

oqojjg 

juoaj 

^ i-Wr-tMvff'X'-tNCCj-f V.-1X 

C ~ O CNCO W I^VO H“ 

l—I Cl Cl — — — — i — 

Exhaust 

Opens. 

93[OJJg 

qoug; 

71 wfco Hr ct!x Hx x!-f Hx echo 
2 i—i — O GVCO CO Is ixj 

H-lCICICI — — — — — 

oqoajg 

juojj 

^ esfco HxHrcC-f HxxlH 
2 — — O C\CO CO Isio 
►—iNCicj — — —• — — 

Steam Cuts 

off. 

Expansion 

begins, 

9?[0JJg 

qoBg 

• icixeoto-iWHxHN 
"§ C\ CO XO rj- M — Hx 

^ c — — — ii OXXO 

HH 

oqojjg 

juojj 

-• ccico HM 

'g OnCO VO rh M — 

2 — 1-1 — »—< *—! »—• CN ■!>• 

i—i 

Opening of 

Steam Port 

9qoj;g 

• |co 

f ’^ ,C 2rHr«!»o-^HN«®3g 

aqoajg 

jaojj 

I ^ ^fnr «|x Hn Hid) 1 

HH 

•9A.p?A J0J9ABJX 

_rt ’HO 

HriHx-+j<H'-Hti«tc’-H , Hx 
fl T}“ CO) CO M M IN Cl CN 

HH 

•aois 

-SlOiptf JO *JU90 X0<J 

CO .N CO CO VO 0 — 0 

oo oo r^vo ioio H co 

•saqojo^i 

h n tO’t vovo r>.x 



•*- 


44 

m 

4_> 

o 

*K 

c5 

d 

j— 

o 


XT 

O 

I- 

o 

o 


Js 

c—» 

rt 

C-, 


AJ 

JD 

<D 

t-* 



to 

c 


& 

c 

. 

c3 

o 

o 



c 


— 



m 

> 

O 


o 

ci 

• •> 


o 

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7? 

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a 

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o 



> 

x: 

o 

c; 

* 

*—• 

cz 




to 


o 


* 


d 

© 


C/3 

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<N 

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14 

O 


o 

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© 

g 

c3 

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m 

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a 

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p 

S—i 

CJ V 

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o 

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o a 


AJ 

/-A 

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p 

a 


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5 2 

i 

• •* 


ci 

o 

o 



> 2 

♦j 

o 

P Ja 

v? 

AJ 

W3 

> a 

O 


c3 

O ^ 

C/3 

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o 

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<j 

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o 

aJ 

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r-T 

•'-* 

o 

o 

c-> 

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r -» 

/—« 




o 

c o 

3 


O Ca p 

^ 2 ‘ 

^ ej 


.2 v 


o 

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C/3 

o> 

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o 

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c« o 

c3 


«o 


AJ 

r-< 

o 

£3 

O 

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t-4 

AJ 

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>1 

o 


o 

o 

>< 

>> 

o 

c> 

C3 

O 

<- 

S—* 

a 

c 

ci 

o 

4J 


o 

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o 

AJ 

W—( 
<K 

u* 

aT 

i4 

a 


a 

3 

03 

a> 

**-A 


JS 

c 

O 

o 

O 

<1> 

■—A 

G 


— 3 .2 

o to ^ 

C/3 ° .G 


<o 

C/7 


C 

aJ 

.c 


3 

o 

o o> 


o 

a 


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£> G 


o 

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ci 


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3 8 


cc ..3 
G © 

w /-* 

«s © 
+-> > 

3 c3 
© •* 





























































VALVE TABLE OF LINK MOTION.—NO. XX. 


TABLES OE LINK MOTION 


149 


aqoi)S jo pna inoaj 
saoaouiajoo 

~ 0 Af -to ^ 

>—1 

•Jiaii jo tins 

1 $ -ix 

Lead on 

Exhaust. 

9q0.t)£ 

jpner 

o^o-ijs 

JUO.XJ 

q ^l— cm;.'I —I— rj<to CM|.'5 CM 1 .': 

p 

u 

O ^ -f'J -to ^ ^ C>\rK 

a l- —H * ^ p <m> ~ 

•—< 

Lead on 

Steam Port 

eqoaig 

qoojj 

0 qoajg 

juoix 

aqoais 

qoug 

M 


Exhaust 
closes, and 
compress¬ 
ion begins. 

• .00 

73 cd-t HOO —Lt MX —1- HX) 

a n ~ O co i^vo to co 

H M M N H M M M H 

oqoais 

juojj 

h!rcci rf -*x cc'-rcc——<x 

— Cl —I O (OsCO VO *-0 "t* 

1 —( d d ci —I*— —i >—> >—i 

Exhaust 

Opens. 

9qo.xjs 

qoeg 

• -to-to 

-g —I- [— -eiKxco'xxl'txf'txl-t 
- co CO ci — - CVCO' 

HH N M Cl M Cl Cl —' — 

oqoajs 

JUOJJ 

A ns to 

7 - H—(rf-fcN MlXttH* 

3 re ro n n h o 0 O 

i—i ci ci ci ci ci d cm -> 

Steam cuts 

off. 

Expansion 

begins. 

oqojjg 

qong 

9qOJJg 

JUOJJ 

OqOTlS 

qong 

oqoajs 

jaoaj 

• CCH’-M'-to HM 

73 — cvt^io co ci O 
rjClHHHWHHCO 

1—1 

• -fCl r-fcM 

"g - OVNViCOM O 
jqCl»— —ip— —ii— i— CO 

1—1 

Opening of 

Steam Port 

>c!x -fx «to -to _to . to_.,_ 

to _ _ 

HH 

H-t 

•9Ap3A. JO J9AUJX 

* 

•g ir^Hx^c-tovSx^T-xfcCT-f^ 

2 co co ci ci ci d ci 

t—i 

*aots 

-srtnpu jo -jaao i9<j 

OOv^MCvO^rO 
C\ i>. £>»VO LO LO rf CO 

•saqojox 

w ci co tJ- vovo r>co 


O 

a 


ci 

X 

o 


zn 

<v 

o 

a 

X 

x 

o 


OQ 

o 

a 


ci 

<D 


Zfl 

o 


o 

a 


o 

o 


4 > 

4-2 

o 

r+ 

5 

cS 


CT3 

O 

o 

a 


(-1 

o 

o 

a 

a 

o 

Z2 

o 

s 

44 

13 


O 

4) 

3 

cJ 


t5x*2X Inches; throw of eccentric 5 inches; lead 1-1G inch full stroke, centre of stud on saddle % inch back of centre line of 
link, toward axle; outside lap % inch on each end of valve; face of valve being inches longer than.the extreme 
distance between outside edges of steam ports; inside lap % inch on each end of valve; the cavity or throat of valve 
being % inch narrower than the distance between inner edges of steam-ports, rocker-shaft being used. 










































VALVE TABLE OF LINK MOTION—NO. XXI. 


150 


TABLES OF LINK MOTION 



a *(oais jo pn9 tnojj 
seouoiuaioD pnaq 

O 0 hh ^ (SJ 

qmq jo d;is 

"o' 1 rfco «.® -H 1 4 1 Hoo 

a 

o “ 

'd 

cs jd 

43 

1-1 w 

oqoj is 
qouq 

g H 1- « « '|o '|35 

k—< 

9>[0.US 

JUOJJ 

u r J't 

t; rto i- M 

r} ** *+ ^ ** 

l-H 

Lead on 

Steam Port 

9qoijs 

qona 

g r4r>n 'r>^| ae ^ ll o),‘'.« , N«lM«N 

HH 

9>(OJlS 

JUOJJ 

o -4x _p, _|_ 0 

—1 

Exhaust 
closes, and 
compress¬ 
ion begins. 

9>i OJ lS 

g HorHccr-!cD^-fecl-+r-lX-fc'i 
g ro *- O OCO r^VO to 

hNM Nhhmhh 

9qoais 
100.1 J 

• _<0 

g -Hx c-bOXH'WM't'-fX HM 

% ro - O CnVO to 

hNNNhmhmh 

Exhaust 

Opens. 

gqoais 

qoug 

g" ectoH'+dto^'ixi-tc-lx—lrf<-toc 
h rCN *- O O' CO r^VD 

hNMNNhmmh 

aqoJis 

jnoag 

a (stn (s, « o C\oo 

<•—i—•>—< 

Steam cuts 
off, 

Expansion 

begins. 

oqoJis 

qoug 

• jo 

g LCfcn |- -4?t 

g — CM^ ^ O 0 

r i •—i >— 1 1 —i —< i—• >—i CO 

aqoJis 

juo.ig 

• jo 

g -4 m 1- Hm 

d — 0\Nior0O O 

.^Nhh-mmwOO 

\ 

Opening of 

Steam Port 

gqo.iis 

qot?g 

k—1 

oqoais 

juojg 

• to ko 

^ ^ h—H- H 

►—i 

*9A.p?A. JO [9AUJX 

g r ~H'Vr-fcC-'- C V r V 

in^rOfON M M M 

k—i 

•U0I9 

-simps jo -jugoaoj 

0 ON'-' o (5\0 fO 

CT\ t>* t^-VO u-> to Ti- CO 

*S9qojo^ 

t-i N CO ^ toO O'. CO j 


* 


X 


l_ 

O 

Q. 

*!. 

03 

3 

cj 

s=. 

X 

43 


03 

43 

J3 

V 

a 

* 


x 


03 

t- 

O 

c. 


o3 

43 


03 

43 

SS 

o 

a 

<v 

u 

o 

u 


u 

<u 

0 ) 


.5 

•3 

cn 

a> 

.a 

o 

a 

oo 

i— 

43 

■3 

d 

>> 

o 

c 

o 

ZC 

o 

e 

id 

d 


o 

43 

3 

oS 

e 


Inches; throw of eccentric 5 inches; lead 1-8 inch, in full stroke; centre of stud on saddle y a inch back of centre line of 
link, toward axle; outside lap X inch on each end of valve; face of valve IX inches longer than the extreme distance 
between outside edges of steam-ports; inside lap 1-16 inch on each end of valve; throat or cavity of valve being y % inch 
narrower than the distance between inside edges of steam-ports; roeker-shaft used. 
















































TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


151 


regulate the exhaust and compression, as lap, lead, and 
travel of valve regulate the distribution of steam, and 
alteration of any of these will affect the motion in a 
definable manner. As the period of admission varies 
with the variation of either lap, lead, or travel of valve, 
so also does that of expansion, which increases as the 
admission decreases; and a reduction of the period of ad¬ 
mission will be the result of an increase of lap or in¬ 
crease of lead, or reduction of travel of valve. Each of 
these elements reaches its extreme qualities, as shown 
by the tables, as follows: lap i inch on each end of 
valve, for fast time, inside, line-and-line; heavy trains 
24 inch on each end of valve, inside, line-and-line, lead 
not to exceed 1-16 inch in full stroke; when required to 
work engine in the back notches travel of valve reaches 
its maximum when traveling the distance equal to the 
width of both steam-ports and lap of both ends of valve, 
added together; to the total, add i inch, this will give 
the proper travel of valve. 

Same motion answers for all engines, whether 20,• 22, 
or 24-inch stroke, as we learn from the tables that the 
point of suspension would be the only point affected by 
the changing of crank, from a 20-inch stroke to a 24- 
inch stroke engine; the eccentrics require the same posi¬ 
tion, also the same lengths of eccentric-rod, for all 
lengths of stroke, when using the same valve motion. 

The general influence common to the link motion has 
been pointed out and illustrated with tables with some 
minuteness, sufficient to show that a correct working 
link motion can be obtained for all cases. There are also 
a sufficient number of valve tables given, with different 
dimensions of lap, lead, and travel of valve, so that the 
engineer can find a table corresponding with the motion 


152 


TABLES OF LINK MOTION 


fa 

> 

fa 

< 

> 

fa 

o 

£ 

fa 

S 

w 

> 

o 

£ 


'OAJTJA }0 [9A.EJX 

• i/XO 

73 " - hn -» c-k» 

~ to 7 - co co n m 

i—i 

Distance 
Piston trav¬ 
els while 
valve has 
no motion. 

aqoais 

qo«a 

q fO CO fO 'N “N — «-> 

-H 

aqoxts 

JUOij 

*2 ->h HMOfcrMlao -icoHN'-w 

f| (1 tr (| n fj n « H 

Valve com¬ 
mences to 

move back 
again. 

aqojis 

ipog 

P - Q\C/0 \Q 

9>(0.l)9 

PIO.IJ 

^ 1 : x 

p cn't to m 

Valve stops 
traveling, 
Piston 

moves on. 

oqojis 

-? H*t rtf -frK-~x hm .-v* 

C CO UVtON M — 

aqous 

tao.(j 

'S ^ -»csj ~SX -4M t-fX -+N 

3 lo Th fO N - — ' T 

Opening of 

Steam Pori 

aqo-us 

qong 

— O 

"o jf H» Witt ^ 

aqojis 

'laoaj 

L - ”lT^ ^ 

•—1 

Steam cuts 

off. 

aqoats 

qosg 

-r H** -*x> <-in 

[a 0 ONNinrCN 0 
j^ci — — ~ — «f-co 

lao-ij 

L 

7r# —tN 

a 0 ONiorON O 
(-hM — i-i — CO 

•soqcyjox 

« N ect cryo t^CO 


lows the distance the Piston moves from the commencement of its stroke; before the Valve gives Its 
enlng of steam port, when there Is no loss motion. Also, showing the distance that the Piston travels 
has no movement, for a short period after reaching its full travel before commencing to move bacle 
able was taken from Engine Cylinder 10x24 inches; link motion; rocker-shaft used. Throw of eccen- 
utside lap of valve, % Inch on each end; inside lap, 1-10 inch on each end; lead on steam port, i-jg inch 


































BOILER PARTS 


153 


of his engine; also a table that will correspond with any 
alterations that he may suggest, giving a clear idea of 
his suggestions, without experimenting with his engine 
or the use of a model. 


BOILER PARTS. 

The boiler is the most important part of the locomo¬ 
tive. If it be of improper design, or if it be allowed to 
get in bad condition, the whole locomotive is lame and 
inefficient. The boiler is the very soul of the machine. 
All other parts—cylinders, wheels, valves, etc.—are sub¬ 
sidiary to it. It is the boiler, more than anything else 
about the locomotive, that determines quality of service 
and measures economy of operation. 

The efficient engineer—and the fireman who hopes to 
be one—should know his boiler “like a book.” He will 
become more and more the master of his job as he be¬ 
comes more and more familiar with those “fine points” 
of design which are too often left wholly unconsidered 
outside the designer’s office and the drafting room in 
the locomotive works—such as. the shape and propor¬ 
tions of the boiler, relation of grate area to heating sur¬ 
face, form of firebox, diameter, length, and spacing of 
tubes, etc. 

The accompanying illustration will help the student 
to a familiar knowledge of the various parts of a boiler. 
Each part is numbered, and the corresponding names 
are as follows: 


154 


INSIDE DIAMETER OF BOILER 


i. Fire box. 2. Mud or foundation ring. 3. Fire 
door opening. 4. Water space or water leg. 5. Brick 
arch tubes. These either go into back sheet or above, 
as shown by dotted lines. 6. Crown sheet. 7. Brick 
arch, made of fire brick. These become red or white 
hot and aid combustion of gases. 8. Fire box flue sheet 
or back flue sheet. 9. Fusible plug. Made of brass, 



with a soft metal center which melts when the crown 
sheet becomes dry and allows the steam to flow into 
the fire box and extinguish the fire. 10. Back sheet of 
outer shell. 11. Dome. 12. Slope sheet. 13. Front 
sheet. 14. Front flue sheet. 15. Middle smoke box 
ring. 16. Front smoke box ring. The flues are shown 
broken in the center, but no one will be in doubt as to 
the way they look or their proper name. 


HOW TO FIND INSIDE DIAMETER OF BOILER. 

To find the inside diameter of a locomotive boiler: 

Rule.— Multiply the diameter of the cylinder in 
inches by 2.98; the product will be the diameter of the 

boiler in inches. 







































AREA OF EXHAUST PORT 


155 


AREA OF FIRE GRATE. 

To find the area of the fire grate of a Locomotive 
boiler: 

Rule.— Multiply the diameter of the cylinder by .87; 
the product will be the area in square feet. 

AREA OF HEATING SURFACE. 

To find the area of effective heating surface of a 
Locomotive boiler: 

Rule. —Multiply the diameter of the cylinder by its 
diameter, and multiply the product by 7; divide the last 
product by 2; the quotient will be the area of effective 
heating surface, in square feet. 

Example.— To find the effective heating surface, the 
cylinder being 16 inches in diameter: 16 X 16 = 256 X 
7 = 1,792 -7- 2 = 896 square feet. 

* 

CUBICAL CONTENTS OF WATER IN A LOCO¬ 
MOTIVE BOILER. 

To find the cubical contents of water in the boiler, 
when having. 3 gauges of water: 

Rule. —Multiply the diameter of the cylinder, in 
inches, by its diameter; multiply the product by 9, and 
divide the last product by 18; the quotient will be the 
cubical contents of the water in the boiler, in cubic feet. 

Example. —To find the cubical contents of water in a 
boiler of a Locomotive, the diameter of cylinder being 
16 inches: 16 X 16 = 256 X 9 = 2 >3°4 -f* 18 = 128 cu¬ 
bic feet of water, or about 960 gallons. 

AREA OF EXHAUST PORT. 

To find the area of exhaust-port, the exhaust-port is 


156 


AREA OF CYLINDER 


required to be twice the area of the steam-port ; the 
length of exhaust-port will be the same as the steam- 
port: 

Rule. —Multiply the diameter of cylinder, in inches, 
by its diameter; multiply the product by .148; the prod¬ 
uct will be the area in square inches. 

Example. —To find the area of an exhaust-port, the 
cylinder being 16 inches in diameter: 16 X 16 = 256 X 
.148 = 37.88 square inches. 

AREAS OF SAFETY VALVES. 


• 24 

2.40 

2 24 

5-94 

324 

11.04 

1 % 

2.76 

2 ji 

6.49 

3% 

II.76 

2 

3 -i 4 

3 

7.07 

4 

12.57 


3-55 

3'/s 

7.67 

4'/s 

I 3-36 

2 % 

3-98 

3'A 

8.30 

4 A 

14.19 

2 H 

4-43 1 

3 H 

8.95 

4 H 

I 5-03 

2 '/j 

4.91 

3 A 

6.62 

4 t A 

15.90 

2 H 

5-42 

3 5 /s 

10.32 

4 s /s 

16.80 


In multiplying decimal numbers, allow as many places 
for decimals in the product as there are decimal places 
in the multiplier and multiplicand together. 

In dividing decimal numbers, allow as many places for 
decimals in the quotient as, taken with those of the 
divisor, will together make up the number of decimal 
places in the dividend. 

AREA OF CYLINDER. 

Rule. —To find the area of a Cylinder, multiply the 
diameter of the cylinder by the diameter in inches, and 
multiply the product by the decimal .7854; the product 
will be the area in square inches. The principle of this 
Rule is that for every imaginable diameter of a circle, if 


LOCATING BLOWS 


157 


a square be circumscribed around it, the circle will oc¬ 
cupy .7854 part of such square. 

To get the solid contents of a cylinder, multiply its 
end area bv the, combined length of the stroke and clear¬ 
ance in inches; the product will be the capacity of the 
cylinder in cubic inches, which divided by 1,728 will give 
the cubic feet. 

• * LOCATING BLOWS. 

It often occurs that when a locomotive engine has 
a pound, it is difficult for a young engineer to find 
the cause. To find the cause, an examination should 
be made of the connecting-rod brasses; if the brasses 
are not too loose on the pins the keys must not be 
driven to stop the pound, but proceed further to find 
the cause, by examining the driving-box brasses and 
driving-box wedges. Also, examine the set-screw that 
holds the back of the wedge against the pedestal, if it 
is too long it will press against the drivng box, and cause 
a pound. Proceed next to caliper the tires to see if 
they are all the same size. If one tire is softer than the 
rest, that tire will wear faster than the rest, and become 
smaller in diameter, and will have to slip every revolu¬ 
tion. The difference between the circumference of that 
tire and the larger ones, will cause a pound; or, if one 
tire is harder than the rest, so as not to wear as fast 
as the other tires, it will cause a pound, the same as if it 
were smaller. There will be no difficulty in finding the 
cause of the engine pounding, if proceeding as above 
described. 

The cvlinder-cocks may be used, when the valves 
or packing blow, to find out where the blow is lo¬ 
cated. When testing the valves, the reverse lever must 


158 


TRAIN RESISTANCE 


be in the centre notch, so that the engine will be in mid¬ 
gear, and the crank-pin vertical with the centre of axle; 
or, in other words, the position of crank must be at half¬ 
stroke, on the side of engine to be examined. Next in 
order, set the tender brake, and admit steam in the steam 
chest. Should the valve not be tight, or blow, as it is 
termed, the steam will come out of the cylinder-cocks. 
Should the face or flange of the valve be worn thin, 
then the pressure may force the valve to be tight when 
not in motion. The blow, when the flanges are thin, 
trembles, caused by the vibration of the valve. 

If the blow is in the packing, it can be detected by 
watching the cylinder-cocks. If the blow continues 
throughout the stroke, when working full-stroke, it will 
be in the packing. It may also be told by the sound of ex¬ 
haust, by watching the stroke of piston. 


TRAIN RESISTANCE. 

The actual resistance to be overcome by a moving train, 
can never be absolutely known. It depends upon so many 
factors, some of which vary to so great an extent with 
ever changing conditions, that it can be calculated only 
approximately. For all practical working purposes, how¬ 
ever, an approximate knowledge is all that is needed, pro¬ 
vided a safe margin be allowed for possible error; and 
the train operator may leave all fine theorizing and meas¬ 
urements to the experimental laboratory and the engi¬ 
neering school. 

Resistance is due to several causes—rolling friction of 


TRAIN RESISTANCE 


159 


wheel on rail, friction of journals, internal engine fric¬ 
tion, back pressure of steam, force of gravity in ascend¬ 
ing grades, effect of curves in track, necessity of getting 
up greater speed, and, finally, the resistance of the atmo¬ 
sphere. 

The accompanying table (p. . .) will be found useful 
in estimating train resistance for various speeds and 
grades, on both straight and curved track. The column 
of resistance “due to speed only” (z. e., on level, straight 
track) probably represents fairly the resistance of average 
loaded cars under favorable conditions. For heavily 
loaded cars of the best construction, running on heavy 
rails and first-class roadbed, the resistance may be less 
than the figures given. On the other hand, with empty 
cars, in bad weather, or on a poor roadbed, the resistance 
may be greatly increased. Iii using the table, allowance 
should be made for the probable error due to such varia¬ 
tions in resistance. 

As the resistance due to grade is simply the force neces^ 
sary to lift the weight of the train the height of the 
ascent, this is something that is accurately known, so that 
in calculating resistance for heavy grade work the chances 
of error are proportionately less than for light grades or 
levels. 

Roughly speaking, the resistance due to grade (in 
pounds per ton) will be 20 times the per cent, of grade, or 
.3788 times the grade in feet per mile. Thus, on a 3.6 per 
cent, or 190-foot, we have: 

Resistance due to grade=20X 3-6= 190X-3788=72 lbs. 
per ton. 

This resistance due to grade has, of course, to be added 
to the resistance due to speed only (or on level track), in 
calculating the actual resistance to be overcome by a 


TABLE OF TRAIN RESISTANCE. 


160 


TRAIN RESISTANCE 


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Degree of Curve 

Radius of Curve 

Equivalent Grade 


Curve Resistance—M pound per ton per degree of curve Equivalent grade in feet per mile—l.U x degree of curve. Crade resistance—J7M pounds per foot of grade. 

Note.— The column of resistance due to speed includes 111 resistances of locomotive and train except internal engine friction. The figures are probably nearly correct lor passenger cars and median 
loaded freight cars, under favorable conditions. Fcr heavily loaded freight cars the resistance may be less than the figures given, but for empty cars, or in bad weather, they may be considerably greater. I 
The proportion of resistance due to grade is correct for alf donations, and consequently the possible percentage of error in using above figures is less lor heavy grades than for light. 




















































































































































































































TRAIN RESISTANCE 


161 


train ascending grade. Thus, turning to the table, we 
find that a train running at 4° miles per hour would have 
a resistance of only 10.4 lbs. per ton on level track; but in 
ascending a 2.08 per cent, or no-foot grade, would have 
to overcome a resistance of 10.4-1-41.67=52.07 (prac¬ 
tically 52.1) lbs. per ton. 

In the case of curves, the lower table enables us to find 
the equivalent grade for various degrees or radii of 
curves ; whereupon the upper table will give the resistance 
due to such equivalent grade. The curve resistance can 
also be roughly estimated at one-half pound per ton per 
degree of curve. 

AIR RESISTANCE TO MOVING TRAINS. 

The most uncertain factor in all calculations of train 
resistance is the effect of the resistance offered by the 
atmosphere. There is a tendency to overlook the im¬ 
portance of this factor, but it is one of great significance. 
In the case of high-speed trains, it is claimed, the atmo¬ 
spheric resistance may amount to one-half the total resis¬ 
tance. 

Experiments made on European roads have led to the 
conclusion that after a car has been started it requires a 
force of about 4 to 6 pounds to keep it moving slowly. As 
the speed increases, a greater force is necessary, since the 
resistance of the air increases as the square of the ve¬ 
locity. That is, if a train is made to move twice as fast, 
the resistance becomes 2x2 (or 4) times as great; if made 
to move three times as fast, it becomes 3x3 (9) times as 
great; and so on. Thus, at a speed of 60 miles an hour, 
the resistance will be four times as great as at 30 miles. 

On the other hand, as speed increases, the power of a 


162 


TRAIN RESISTANCE 


locomotive also increases, but only up to a certain limit; 
if the speed is increased beyond that limit, the power of 
the locomotive declines. It is estimated that a locomotive 
has developed its maximum of power when a speed of 
21^4 miles per hour is reached. 

Perhaps the most important data ever gathered on the 
subject of atmospheric resistance to moving trains, is 
based on experiments conducted during the winter of 
1 895-96, in the Engineering Laboratory at Purdue Uni¬ 
versity, Lafayette, Ind., by Prof. H. C. Solberg, assisted 
by Mr. Augustus C. Spiker and Norman E. Gee. 

For the purposes of the experiments, a rectangular con¬ 
duit was constructed, within which a current of air hav¬ 
ing anv desired velocity could be maintained. Within this 
conduit, and exposed to the action of the air currents, 
small dummy or model cars were mounted, each model 
being connected with a sensitive dynamometer recording 
the value of any force tending to displace it in the direc¬ 
tion of its length. 

Below we give a partial summary of the more impor¬ 
tant conclusions. The figures given apply to trains and 
parts of trains having an area of cross-section equal to 
that common in American practice. They are, however, 
general in character; and when applied to individual 
cases, may lead to errors of from 15 to 20 per cent. The 
possibility of such errors should in every case be consid¬ 
ered in making final estimates. The conclusions are as 
, follows: 

1. The resistance offered by still air to the progress of 
a locomotive and tender running at the head of a train, 
is approximately ten times greater than that acting on an 
intermediate car of same train. 

2. The resistance offered by still air to the progress 


TRAIN RESISTANCE 


163 


of the last car of a train, is approximately two and one- 
half times greater than that acting on an intermediate car 
of same train. 

3. To calculate the resistance offered by still air to the 
progress of trains and parts of trains, first ascertain the 
velocity of the train in miles per hour, and “square’’ it, 
1. e., multiply the velocity by itself; then multiply the re¬ 
sult by various factors according to the particular case, 
as follows: 


Multiply sq. 

For of velocity by 

Locomotive and tender running alone.13 

Locomotive and tender at head of train.11 

Last car of freight train.026 

Last car of passenger train.036 

Each intermediate freight car in train of 33-foot cars.01 


Each intermediate passenger car in train of 66-foot cars.02 

For train consisting of locomotive, tender, and freight cars, 
count number of cars in train; multiply this by .01 ; add to 
product .13; and multiply sum by the square of the velocity. 

For a train consisting of locomotive, tender, and passenger 
cars, multiply number of cars in train by .02; add .13; multiply 
sum thus obtained, by the square of the velocity. 

Another method of estimating the resistance offered, by still 
air to a train, either freight or passenger, is to ascertain the length 
of the entire train in* feet; add 347; multiply sum by .0003; and 
multiply product by the square of the velocity. 

In making estimates of resistance according to above 
rules, it must be borne in min,d that the air is supposed 
to be still, and the force of resistance is supposed to be 
exerted “head on’’ against front end of moving train. If 
the wind is blowing “head on” against the train, and the 
velocity of the wind can be ascertained; then add velocity 
of wind (in miles per hour) to velocity of train, and re¬ 
sult will give relative velocity of train to air, which will 
be the factor to be used in the calculation. Thus, if train 
is running at 25 miles an hour dead against a wind of 
30 miles an hour, the velocity of train to be used as a fac- 







164 STEAM TEMPERATURE AND VOLUME 


tor in calculation would be 25-1-30 (or 55) miles per 
hour. 

If wind is blowing from rear exactly in direction of 
moving train, it is reasonable to assume that the relative 
velocity of train to air would be found by subtracting 
velocity of air from velocity of train. Thus, a train run¬ 
ning 45 miles an hour with a wind in same direction of 
30 miles an hour, would be moving only at a velocity of 
45—30 (or 15) miles against the wind. 

There are as yet no definite figures available for cases 
where wind at various velocities blows against side of 
train at different angles. The air resistance, in such 
cases, will vary with every difference in velocity and 
angle of the wind; and in making allowance for same, 
only rough approximate estimates can be made. 

TABLE. 

Showing the temperature of steam, at different pres¬ 
sures, from 1 lb. per square inch, to 200 lbs.; and 
the quantity of steam produced from a cubic inch of 
water, according to pressure: 


Pressure in lbs.. 

Per square inch. 

Corresponding temper¬ 
ature. by Fahrenheit 
thermometer. 

Cubic inches of steam 
romamibic inch of water 
according to pressure. 

Pressure in lbs., 

Per square inch. 

Corresponding temper¬ 
ature, by Fahrenheit 
thermometer. 

Cubic inches of steam 
rom a cubic inch of wa- 
er,according to pressure. 







I 

102.9 

20954 

26 

243.0 

1005 

2 

126.1 

1090 / 

27 

245.1 

971 

3 

I 4 X ,0 

7455 

28 

247.2 

939 


STEAM TEMPERATURE AND VOLUME 165 


TABLE— (Continued) 


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2050 

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1903 

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1777 

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213.0 

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269.9 

662 

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219.6 

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271.4 

647 

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222.6 

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272.9 

634 

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225.6 

1342 

44 

274-3 

620 

20 

228.3 

1280 

45 

2757 

608 

21 

231.0 

1224 

46 

277. 1 

506 

22 

233-6 

1172 

47 

278.4 

584 

23 

236.1 

1125 

48 

2797 

573 

24 

238.4 

1082 

49 

28l.O 

562 

25 

240.7 

1042 

50 

282.3 

552 


5 1 

52 

53 

54 

55 

56 

57 

58 

59 

6o 

6 i 

62 

63 

64 

65 

66 

6 / 

68 

69 

70 

71 

72 

73 

74 

75 

76 

77 

78 


STEAM TEMPERATURE AND VOLUME 


283.6 

542 

81 

3143 

355 

to 

00 

00 

532 

82 

315-2 

35i 

286.0 

523 

83 

316.1 

348 

287.2 

5i4 

84 

316.9 

344 

288.4 

506 

85 

317-8 

340 

289.6 

498 

86 

318.6 

337 

29O./ 

490 

87 

3194 

333 

29I.9 

482 

88 

320.3 

330 

293.O 

474 

89 

321.1 

326 

294.I 

467 

90 

321.9 

323 

294.9 

460 

9i 

322.7 

320 

295-9 

453 

92 

323.5 

317 

297.O 

447 

93 

324-3 

3i3 

298.I 

440 

94 

325-0 

310 

299.I 

434 

95 

325-8 

307 

300.1 

428 

96 

326.6 

305 

301.2 

422 

97 

327.3 

302 

302.2 

4i7 

98 

328.1 

299 

303-2 

411 

99 

328.8 

296 

304.2 

406 

roo 

329.6 

293 

3O5I 

401 

110 

339-2 

271 

306.1 

396 

120 

345-8 

251 

307-1 

391 

130 

352-1 

233 

308.0 

386 

140 

357-9 

218 

308.9 

381 

>50 

3634 

205 

309-9 

377 

160 

368.7 

193 

310.8 

372 

170 

373-6 

183 

3 11 -7 

368 

180 

378.4 

174 

312.6 

364 

190 

382.9 

166 

3L3-5 

359 

200 

387-3 

158 


MAKING A TIMETABLE 


167 


MAKING A TIMETABLE 

The diagram on page 168 shows how timetables are 
prepared for the running of trains on railroads, the sta¬ 
tions being laid off to a scale of miles one way, and the 
time in hours and minutes the other way. The broken 
lines show the time trains stop at stations, and passing 
points. When making out a timetable, if the road be 
175 miles long, lay out 175 lines, equal distance apart; 
then lay out the distance between stations, by counting 
each line for one mile, dividing up between lines for 
P2 and 34 miles when required, placing the name of 
station upon the line, and distance in miles between sta¬ 
tions, as shown in diagram, it being necessary only to 
draw lines across the table that the names of stations 
come upon. 

Lay out the other way in hours and minutes for 24 
hours. All the first-class trains are to be started first, 
running in both directions, giving speed per hour and 
time stopping at stations. Then the second-class trains, 
showing speed and time and arriving in advance of 
first-class trains’ time, giving proper clearance, which is 
generally about 10 minutes at passing points. 

Example: In referring to timetable, we find that the 
Express leaves Newark 6:50 a. m., arriving at Ross 
7:57 a. m., speed 30 miles per hour, passing the way 
Passenger at Ross, which left Newark 6:20 a. m., arriv¬ 
ing 7:54 a. m., speed 23 miles per hour. Express arrives 
at Paterson 8:40 a. m.; way Passenger arrives 9:20 a. m. 

We also find a Freight and a Passenger train which 
left Paterson running from opposite direction, which 
have arrived at Ross; Freight 11 minutes. Passenger 3 
minutes before the Express’ arriving time, so as to take 


168 MAKING A TIMETABLE 



Diagram Illustrating Preparation of Timetables. 



















































































































































MAKING A TIMETABLE 


169 


the side track for the Express. Trains of the same 
class have the same arriving time, which can be seen by 
inspecting the table. 

Double track roads require 2 diagrams, one for each 
track to make out a timetable, as the trains all run one 
way on each track, there being no meeting of trains. 
For want of space this diagram was laid out in hours 
and ten minutes instead of hours' and minutes. 



# 








DONT’S 

For Engineers and Firemen. 

"First. Don't think because you are only one en¬ 
gineer or fireman, that what you do does not amount 
to much. It is the little drops of water that make the 
mighty ocean, and the little grains of sand that make 
up this earth of ours; so each individual, in the aggre¬ 
gate, can do a great deal. If each engine crew saves 
one-quarter of a ton or five hundred pounds of coal, 
this on a thousand locomotives would result in a daily 
saving of two hundred and fifty tons, or in round figures 
$157,000 a year. 

“Second. Don't neglect being at roundhouse in am¬ 
ple time to examine the firing tools on the engine before 
leaving the roundhouse. See that your ashpan, grates 
and flue-sheets are in good condition to make the run. 

“Third. Don't fill the boiler full of water as soon 
as you get out of the house. Leave a space so the injec¬ 
tor can be worked to prevent popping while air pump 
exhaust is fanning the fire, pumping air to make the ter¬ 
minal air brake test. If you do this your fire will be in 
better condition to pull out with. The noise of open 
pop prevents trainmen from locating leaks. 

“Don't forget to start the lubricator a few minutes 
before leaving a terminal. Set it to feed regularly. The 
proper lubrication of valves and cylinders saves coal. * 

“Fourth. Don't forget, when starting trains, to do 
so carefully, thus preventing damage to drawbars and 
draft rigging. By so doing you will save serious de- 

170 


DON’TS 


171 


lays to your own as well as other trains. All delays 
mean extra fuel consumption to make up time lost. 

“Don’t neglect using the blow-off cock, as it keeps 
the boiler clean and water in good condition, and in¬ 
sures better circulation in boiler. Result: Better steam¬ 
ing engine and a saving in coal. 

“Fifth. Don't allow the engine to slip. This is an 
unnecessary waste of coal, wears out tires and rails, 
causes great damage to pins, axles and running gear, 
and generally results in spoiling a fire. 

“Sixth. Don't pull out of a station with a train 
(after engine has stood for a while, and fire was al¬ 
lowed to get low) without first giving the fireman a 
chance to build up the fire. The time lost waiting to do 
this will save coal, and can better be made up before 
reaching the next station. Remember this when you 
get a time order. 

“Seventh. Don’t leave the reverse lever down in 
corner longer than necessary when pulling out of sta¬ 
tions. No rule can be made to govern how the throttle 
and reverse lever should be used. This must be ac¬ 
quired by practice and observing the performance of 
the engine. Bring the lever up gradually as speed is 
acquired. The lever hooked well towards center of 
quadrant, with throttle well open, usually gives better 
results than using the throttle to govern the speed. Up 
to five years ago we considered it good practice with our 
smaller power to run with wide open throttle, and as 
short a point of cut-off as possible consistent with weight 
of train; but in our heavier and larger engines we find 
that it is better at many times to throttle the engine. 

Particular attention is called to all wide fire-box tvnes of 

* *- 


172 


DON'TS 


locomotives. The engineer can permit the reverse lever 
in these engines to remain low in the quadrant when 
starting from a station for a greater length of time than 
with the other types of locomotives without pulling the 
fire or losing steam. When you are running on short 
time, it would be good judgment for the engineer to 
take advantage of this when pulling out from a station. 
In this engineers will use their best judgment. 

“Eighth. Don't put four or five or more shovelfuls 
of coal into the fire at once. One or two shovelfuls will 
give better results, and these two should not be thrown 
in the same spot. It is good practice to fire on one side 
of the box at one time, and the next time ,on the other 
side of the box, in order that the bright fire on one side 
may take up the gases from the fresh coal on the other 
side. This will reduce the smoke and give more steam. 

“Always fire as light as possible consistent with your 
work. Very heavy firing will make your flues and stay- 
bolts leak, and in time will crack your fire-box sheets. 
The reason for this is that when you have a very heavy 
fire the air will not pass up through it readily, and the 
gases pass ofif, because there is not sufficient oxygen to 
unite with them to produce combustion, and as the gases 
must get air from somewhere, the air is then pulled 
through the fire-door, causing the chilling of flues and 
sheets as referred to above. 

“Ninth. Don't allow steam to escape at pops un¬ 
necessarily. Frequent blowing ofif at pops shows im¬ 
proper judgment, and implies that the engine crew is 
not practicing economy. Tests have demonstrated that 
l /\ lb. per second, or 15 lbs. per minute, is wasted. This 
amounts to about one ordinary scoopful, and in most 
cases may as well have been thrown on the eround as 


DONTS 


173 


into the firebox. There are only 133 scoopfuls in a ton 
of coal, so you can see that you would only have to have 
your pops open one hundred and thirty-three minutes 
in a whole day in order to throw a ton of coal away. 

“Tenth. Don’t open the firebox door to prevent 
steam blowing off at pops when engine is working; 
dropping dampers is a better practice. The supply of 
air is cut off, and combustion is partially suspended. 
When engine stops blowing off, open dampers again be¬ 
fore putting in coal. This method keeps fire in better 
condition and saves coal. You have no doubt noticed 
that on a certain class of locomotives, when working 
hard on a hill, you have to shut your dampers in order 
to keep your fire from turning over. This is because the 
exhaust pulls too much air up through the grates, and 
causes your coal to be too active, and to prevent this 
activity of coal, as well as increased combustion which 
follows, we consider it a good thing to drop your damp¬ 
ers, as per above. 

“Eleventh. Don’t insist upon having the. maximum 
steam pressure with pops opening occasionally when 
handling light trains, when less pressure will handle the 
train on time, thus avoiding the opening of pops. 

“Twelfth. Don’t forget, when engine is shut off for 
stations, to drop your dampers, opening the firebox door 
slightly, if necessary, and using the blower to carry off 
the black smoke. 

“Thirteenth. Don’t blame the engine or coal if en¬ 
gine is not steaming properly, before you have ascer¬ 
tained whether or not both of you are doing your duty. 
Talk it over; see if injector is not supplying more 
water than is being used, or that fireman is not firing too 


174 


DONTS 


light or too heavy. Heavy firing is responsible for more 
poor steaming engines than the lighter method. You all 
know some engine crews have better success than others, 
with same engines and conditions. Think a little; there 
must be some cause for this. 

“Don’t wait until you get the signal to pull out before 
building up the fire. This, should be done gradually un¬ 
til the proper thickness has been reached. A good fire 
to start with is essential to maintain the proper steam 
pressure, while engine is working hard getting train 
under way. Afterwards distribute the coal evenly on 
sides, ends and corners. Do this systematically, keeping 
in mind where you have placed the last shovelful, thus 
avoiding getting holes in fire, and prevent piling up 
coal all in one place. Endeavor to keep the steam pres¬ 
sure uniform, with as little black smoke as possible. Ex¬ 
perience has taught that engines with draft appliances 
properly adjusted require very little coal in center of 
firebox. 

V 

“Fourteenth. Don’t permit the water to get so high 
in boiler that it is carried over into the valves and cylin¬ 
ders. This usually occurs when pulling out of stations, 
and the water carries off the oil, which not only results 
in cut valves and cylinders, but the extra friction dam¬ 
ages the entire valve motion, to the detriment of the 
power of engine and the coal record. 

“Don’t gauge the amount of water an engine will 
safely carry by water coming out of stack. Keep it 
low enough to insure dry steam being used, because 
moist steam has the same effect as water. Usually one- 
half glass or two gauges give best results. Be careful, 
however, when ascending a grade, and you are about 
to pitch over the other side, that you have sufficient 


DON’TS 


175 


water to keep your crown-sheet thoroughly covered. If 
your custom has been to carry high water, try less and 
note results in better handling of tonnage, also saving 
in coal and oil. 

“Fifteenth. Don’t neglect to take advantage of 
your excess steam before your engine is about to pop off, 
by making a heater'of your injector, blowing steam back 
into the tank to warm the cold water, but avoid getting 
it so hot that the injector will not lift the water. By 
doing this you will keep your engine from blowing off 
at pops when standing at stations after the boiler is filled 
up. You have all tried warming the water in the tank 
to help a poor steaming engine, with good results. What 
is good for a poor steaming engine will surely help a 
good steaming engine do better. Try it and you will 
find that it will not only save work for the fireman, but 
will make a better coal record for the engine crew, be¬ 
sides keeping the tank from sweating, which you are 
aware spoils paint. 

‘Sixteenth. Don’t think the fireman alone to blame 
for your coal record. The best and most economical 
fireman cannot make a showing with an engineer who 
supplies more water to boiler than is being used, and 
who shuts injector off only when boiler is pumped full. 
The proper handling of the injector is one of the most 
important matters in saving coal. Feed water to boiler 
according to demands. If on through train keep water 
level as possible. If on way freight or switch trains, 
lose a little water between stations. Fill up again while 
drifting into, standing or switching at station. The ad¬ 
vantages of supplying less water than is being used be¬ 
tween stations are: Tt requires less coal to keep up 
• steam pressure when running; also leaves a space so 


176 


DON’TS 


injector can be worked to avoid pops opening, and heav¬ 
ier fire can also be maintained to do switching, without 
the possibility of the fire being pulled. 

Don’t pull out after making a stop with injectors 
working. The cool water introduced during period 
throttle was shut off is put in circulation throughout the 
boiler, and pointer on gauge drops back from five to 
twenty-five pounds. The fireman must then fire heavier 
to regain the lost steam, and naturally will use more 
coal. This conditon exists also when engine has gone 
down grade with throttle shut or slightly open. Shut 
the injector off before opening the throttle. If this is 
not your practice, try it and note the difference. 

“Seventeenth. Don’t wait for the pops to open and 
use this as a signal to put on the injector. Keep an eye 
on the air gauge, steam gauge and water glass. You 
all know this can be done without distracting your at¬ 
tention from the track ahead. A look for an instant 
every mile or two will keep you informed, and is a good 
habit. Doing this will also keep you posted on air pres¬ 
sure, and may avoid difficulties should the air pump 
stop. The fireman should also keep an eye on the water 
glass, as the engineer is sometimes compelled to keep the 
injector at work to prevent the engine blowing off. 
When glass is full, the fireman should fire lighter, to give 
the engineer a chance to shut off the injector, and not 
have engine blow off. However, this condition should 
only exist when injector cannot be worked fine enough 
to just supply amount used. This sometimes occurs 
when card time is slow, or on down grade, or when run¬ 
ning with light train. 

“Eighteenth. Don’t put too much coal under the 
arch of engines with sloping fireboxes, because 


DONTS 


177 


these engines naturally pull the coal ahead, which re¬ 
sults in forward section of grates becoming stuck and 
clinkered over, and fire is pulled in back end of firebox. 
Experience and observation will teach you to put most 
of the coal in back end of firebox. 

“Nineteenth. Don’t think engine having two fire¬ 
box doors requires twice the quantity of coal it would 
if engine had but one. The extra door is for the pur¬ 
pose of distributing the coal more evenly over the grate 
surface, with less effort on the part of the fireman. 

“Twentieth. Don’t shovel large chunks of coal into 
firebox, because you find them on the tank. The coal 
house men have instructions to break it the size of an 
apple. If not properly broken, report it to Road Fore¬ 
man of Engines or to Master Mechanic, instead of fel¬ 
low engineers or firemen, but don't think it a hardship 
to break some occasionally. Better break it than to 
throw in large chunks. They are foundations for clink¬ 
ers. 

“Twenty-first. Don’t expect the fireman to fire the 
engine with one or two scoops to each fire, and also ring 
the bell for highway crossings and stations. Some en¬ 
gineers expect this. If engine is equipped with an air 
bell-ringer, get into the habit of starting the bell-ringer 
when blowing the whistle. By so doing, the habit will 
become as fixed as whistling for crossings and stations. 
Besides, it is just as important. Remember the engineer 
is responsible. 

“Twenty-second. Don’t put in a heavy fire about 
the time the engine is shut off for a station or down¬ 
grade. The heavy cloud of black smoke is evidence the 
engine crew is not working in harmony or practicing 


178 


DON’TS 


economy. If on train that stops at all stations, the fire¬ 
man should guard against it and learn when to stop fir¬ 
ing. He will be governed by grade, service and weather 
conditions. If train does not make all station stops, the 
engineer should keep the fireman informed of intended 
stops. 

“Twenty-third. Don't forget that different qualities 
of coal and different make of grate used, govern the 
shaking of grates. Coal that fills up and clinkers, re¬ 
quires more attention than the better grade. The object 
is to keep the grates free, so the proper amount of air 
can be admitted. 

“Twenty-fourth. Don't neglect cleaning your fire 
on trains that are long hours on the road. Make use of 
the first opportunity. You will get better results with 
less labor and coal, and avoid leaky flues. Better clean 
out a small amount two or three times than not clean it 
at all. 

“ Don't take coal or water oftener than necessary, as 
it requires an extra amount of coal to again get a heavy 
train in motion, especially on a grade. Good judgment 
is required in order not to run short before getting to 
next coal chute or water tank. Where possible take 
water only from tank containing good water, and as 
little as you can from tanks containing poor water. 

“Twenty-fifth. Don't forget that leaks in the air 
pressure are being kept up by an equal amount of steam 
pressure. As it takes coal to make steam, air leakage 
means a waste of coal. Keep apparatus on your engine 
tight, and insist on trainmen doing their part. 

“Twenty-sixth. Don't try to put more coal on tank 
than will lie on it securely. All coal dropped off by 


DON’TS 


179 


overloading is wasted. Also keep coal from falling out 
of gangway when running. This may be only a little 
each day, but it all counts against your coal records; be¬ 
sides it looks badly when strewn along the tracks. You 
can not save coal by the ton; it must be in pounds, which 
in time make tons. 

“Twenty-seventh. Don't forget to make an intel¬ 
ligent report on your work slip on arrival at Round 
House. Consult your fireman in regard to any defect 
that has come to his notice, especially with grates, damp¬ 
ers or firing tools. 

“Twenty-eighth. “Don’t neglect reporting the pop 
valves ground in when leaking or when they blow back 
eight or ten pounds before seating. Also report leaky 
piston rod and valve stem packings, or if cylinder pack¬ 
ing or valves are blowing. All these leaks draw on the 
coal pile unnecessarily; it takes coal to generate the 
wasted steam. This also applies to leaky steam heat 
appliances, cylinder cocks, etc. 

“Twenty-ninth. Don’t neglect looking at coal re¬ 
port each month to see how you stand in relation to 
others in same service with whom you are comparable. 
The other crews get the same pay yon do, and it should 
be your aim to be as economical with both fuel and sup¬ 
plies as they are, other things being equal. Keep posted 
and be with the average. It will be to your credit and 
interest some time; therefore aim to be at the top. 

“Thirtieth. Don’t think when coal report shows 
you using only two pounds more per ioo ton mile than 
other crews in same service, it is close enough. This 
means two pounds more used for every mile you hauled 
ioo tons—or another way, two pounds for every too 


180 


ECONOMY RULES 


tons hauled one mile. Figure this up and you will find 
in hauling 1,000 tons ioo miles, a difference of 2,000 
pounds or one ton. This method of showing up the in¬ 
dividual record is more equitable to all than on basis of 
mile run per ton of coal. 

“Thirty-first. Don't think, after reading over this 
chapter of “Don’ts” you should save coal to the detri¬ 
ment of the service. The actual amount required to 
make up time, keep on time, or handle tonnage, is not 
what we are trying to save; it is the waste.” 

Note: The foregoing valuable advice is by Mr. Rob¬ 
ert Quayle, Supt. of Motive Power, Chicago & North¬ 
western Ry. 


ECONOMY RULES 

RULES FOR FIRING. 

1. On arriving at the engine in the roundhouse, fire¬ 
men must assure themselves of the proper condition of 
the fire and the ashpan, and see that the grates are all 
connected and in order; also that the tender is supplied 
with the necessary tools for handling the fuel and at¬ 
tending to the fire. Anything in bad order must be 
reported to the engineer. 

2. Firemen must usually have their fire in readiness 
train is getting under way, avoiding, as much as pos¬ 
sible, opening the fire-door while the exhaust is strong. 


ECONOMY RULES 


181 


3. Coal should be broken into pieces as nearly as pos¬ 
sible the size of an ordinary apple, and, when put upon 
the fire, must be spread over the surface of the fire as 
largely and evenly as possible, giving the sides and cor¬ 
ners the preference, but must never be thrown in heaps 
on any part of the fire. 

4. Firemen should fire lightly and often, and avoid 
heavy firing. Charges of four and five shovelfuls of 
coal, while running along ordinarily, constitute heavy 
firing. One or two shovelfuls per ‘‘fire,” under ordi¬ 
nary conditions, are as many as may be used. 

5. When clinkers have formed in the firebox, 
firemen must remove them at the first opportunity, and 
must not try to run the last part of a trip with a “clink- 
ered” fire,, if there is opportunity to clean it. The fire 
should never be cleaned while the engine is working 
steam. 

6. Firemen must keep the steam pressure as nearly 
within the limits of ten pounds as possible. While the 
injector is working after steam is shut off from the 
cylinders, the blower must be used when necessary to 
prevent lowering steam pressure. 

7. To prevent or stop blowing off —increase the 
boiler feed; or, if necessary, drop the dampers. If neces¬ 
sary to open the fire-door for this purpose while the en¬ 
gine is working, open but slightly, or swing open and 
shut. 

8. Smoking and drumming of engines should be pre¬ 
vented at stations, or while near or attached to pas¬ 
senger trains. 

9. Ashpans or fires must not be cleaned near any 
bridge or culvert, depot or building, or on any frog or 
switch; and in all cases the fire removed from locomo- 


182 


ECONOMY RULES 


tives must be thoroughly drowned with water before 
being left. 

10. Firemen must see that a bed of fire is placed over 
the forward portion of the grates, next to the tube sheet, 
before the engine is handled or the blower used. 

11. The blower must be used only when necessary. 
At all times it must be used as lightly as possible to 
effect the desired purpose. 

12. Coal spilled on the deck, or lying in the gang¬ 
way, must be swept into the coal-pit and not out of the 
gangway. Nor must it be allowed to shake out of the 
gangway or off the top of the tender, and be lost along 
the road. 

RULES FOR BOILER-FEEDING. 

1. Engineers are responsible for the constant main¬ 
tenance of a safe supply of water in the boiler; also for 
the observance of proper methods of boiler-feeding, 
whether by themselves or firemen. 

2. The steam pressure should be kept approximately 
within the limit of ten pounds. 

3. Opportunities for storing hot water in the boiler 
should be improved when this can easily be done, to 
help the engine when the work is heavy, and to save 
coal. 

4. Surplus steam should not be permitted to blow 
off. When the water in the boiler is up to the working 
limit, the surplus steam should be used for heating the 
water in the tank. 

Saving coal is important; but safety of trains, and 
their prompt movement, are still more important, and 
no risks of damage or delay should be incurred in order 
to save fuel. 


ECONOMY RULES 


183 


RULES FOR USE OF STEAM. 

1. In starting, steam should be used so as to avoid 
jerking trains or slipping driving-wheels. Slipping 
should be prevented by throttling steam or using sand. 

2. In hauling trains,, steam should be used with as 
short cut-offs as possible consistent with the work re¬ 
quired ; and with the throttle wide open when necessary 
to make the engine work properly at the shortest cut-off. 

3. When the shortest possible cut-off is being used, 
speed must be controlled by throttling the steam. 

4. Unless there is a train to meet or work to do, the 
full running time should be used between stations, to 
enable the engine to haul the train most economically. 



Fuel-Oil 

and 

Oil-Burning 

Locomotives 


166 



186 
























































































































































FUEL-OIL 

FUEL OIL FOR LOCOMOTIVES. 

Up to 1901 the use of oil as fuel for locomotives in the 
United States was quite limited; but the recent discov¬ 
ery of the great petroleum fields of Texas and Southern 
California has so increased the visible supply that oil is 
now much more widely used in this country than it for¬ 
merly was. Oil versus coal as’ fuel is in fact one of the 
live, practical railroad problems of the day. All roads 
have considered this problem in a more or less system¬ 
atic way, and not a few have to a greater or less extent 
equipped their lines with oil-burning locomotives, oil 
supply tanks, and other requisite mechanical appliances 
for the use of oil as fuel. The up-to-date railroad man, 
therefore, must know all about the oil-burning locomo¬ 
tive—how it differs from the coal burner, how it is fired, 
how operated, etc. 

Petroleum, or “rock oil” as it was at first called, was 
discovered in commercial quantities in the United States 
about 1859. Very soon afterwards, experiments were 
begun, to find some practicable way of using the new 
product as fuel for locomotives. The first devices were 
very crude. For example, in two locomotives built for 
the Eastern Railway of France, the oil was simply al¬ 
lowed to run freely in grooves on the top of the grate 
bars, which sloped toward the front of the firebox, -and 
the air supply came up between the bars in just the same 
way as when coal is used. 

The first really successful oil-burner was made in Rus¬ 
sia. It was invented by Thomas Urquhart, Locomotive 


FUEL-OIL 


188 

Superintendent of the Grazi-Tsaritzin Railway, about 
1883. This device was one of the first to use a jet of 
steam to spray or atomize the oil as it enters the firebox, 
and this same principle has been adopted in all the most 
successful burners that have since appeared. 

Russia is the greatest oil-burning nation to-day. The 
use of oil as locomotive fuel has in that country become 
more general than in any other. This is due in the first 
place, to the abundant supply of fuel oil there available, 
but more especially to the peculiar qualities of the Rus¬ 
sian oil, which make it particularly adapted for heating 
purposes. With the largest portion of American petro¬ 
leum, 75 per cent is capable of being made into refined 
oil, leaving only 25 per cent of residues. In Russia, on 
the other hand, these figures are exactly reversed: only 
25 per cent is made into refined oil, while 75 per cent is 
residues. And the residues are what is burned. 

ADVANTAGES OF FUEL OIL 

The relative advantages of oil and coal as fuel, de¬ 
pend, of course, on the question of their relative cost in 
use. In estimating this cost, various things besides the 
price of the fuel have to be taken into consideration— 
such as the savings effected in repairs to engine and 
roadbed; in labor, cleanliness, and comfort; in lessened 
liabilities to damage suits from setting fires, etc. 

One pound of oil will generate approximately as much 
heat as one and three-fourths pounds of coal; but when 
all economies are taken into consideration, it is estimated 
that 

1 lb. oil = 2 lbs. coal. 

From experiments made by the Baldwin Locomotive 
Works, the following formula has been deduced, by the 


FUEL-OIL 


189 


use of which can be calculated the price one would have 
to pay for oil to make it the equivalent of coal at any 
given price: 

Cost of coal per ton -f- Cost of handling (say 50c.) X 10 7 X 7 P®f at 

- -—- - = which oil will be 

2,000 X Evaporative power of coal the equiv. of coal 

In using above formula, the cost of both coal and oil 
is considered at the place delivered to the engine, and 
not at the place where purchased by the railroad. By 
“evaporative power of coal” is meant the number of 
pounds of water evaporated by the boiler for each pound- 
of coal burned; this varies considerably with the ratio 
of heating surface to grate surface, and with the volume 
consumed in a given time; and may range from 5 to .12 
pounds. 

Example :—If coal can be delivered to tender at $3.00 
a ton, and oil would cost 1% cents a gallon, or 63 cents 
a barrel of 42 gallons,, which is the cheaper .fuel? An¬ 
swer: —Oil. 

Using above formula: 

Cost of coal $3.00 

Cost of handling .50 


3.50X io. 7 =$ 3745 o 
10.7 


2450 

3500 


3745oX7=$262.i5o 

7 


262.150 







190 


FUEL-OIL 


Now, suppose evaporative power of coal is 6. 

2,000X6—12,000. 

$262.150“i - 12,000—$.021 (or say 2 cents). 
12,000) 262.150 (.0210 
24000 


22150 

12000 


1500 


That is, oil at 2 cents would be equal to coal at $3. 
If oil costs over 2 cents a gallon, coal at $3 a ton is the 
cheaper fuel; but if oil costs less than 2 cents a gallon, 
then oil is the cheaper fuel. 

RELATIVE VALUE OF COAL AND OIL, ALL ASCERTAINED 


ECONOMIES CONSIDERED. 


Oil per Barrel at 
$0 20 


Coal per Ton at 


I OO 
I IO 
I 20 


30 

40 

50 

60 


fo 65 
98 

i 3 ° 
1 63, 

1 96 

2 28 
2 61 

2 93 

3 26 


i 3 ° 
1 40 
1 50 
1 60 
1 70 
1 So 

1 90 

2 00 



4 56 

4 89 

5 22 
5 54 

5 87 

6 19 
6 52 




FUEL-OIL 


191 


The above table showing the equivalent values of 
oil per barrel and coal per ton, all economies being taken 
into consideration, has been prepared by the Baldwin 
Locomotive Works after careful investigation. 

In performing calculations where relative weight and 
volume are concerned, the following table showing the 
equivalents of i pound, i liquid gallon, i barrel, and i 
gross ton, each in terms of the rest, will be found use¬ 
ful: 


RELATIVE WEIGHTS AND VOLUMES. 


Pound 

U. S. Liquid Gal. 

Barrel 

Gross Ton 

1 

.13158 

.0031328 

.0004464 

7.6 

1 . 

.02381 

.003393 

319.2 

42. 

1 . 

.1425 

2,240. 

294.72 

7.017 

1 . 

As already intimated, the 

conditions 

affecting cost of 


fuel oil have undergone changes in recent years. In 
1900 the total production of crude oil in the United 
States was over 63,360,000 barrels, or nearly four times 
the production of 1888. In 1888, certain tests made 
by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, as described by 
Dr. Charles B. Dudley before the Franklin Institute in 
Philadelphia, showed that at that time, with oil at 30 
cents per barrel, it actually cost nearly 50 per cent more 
to take the same train of cars 100 miles by means of 
oil than by means of coal. Ten years later, however— 
or in 1898—the report of the Los Angeles Terminal 
Railway, with locomotives burning Los Angeles oil & 
75 cents a barrel, showed that the cost per mw 
amounted to 11.1 cents, as against 28.3 cents, the art' 
.age cost of coal for the year just preceding the adoption 
of oil as fuel. 

The ordinary run of California crude oil will show in 


192 


FUEL-OIL 


the calorimeter from 19,000 to 20,000 British Thermal 
Units, and an average evaporation of from 13 to 14 
pounds of water per pound of oil,, from and at 212 0 F.— 
an efficiency of about 80 per cent. The best coal obtain¬ 
able will not run more than 13,000 to 14,000 B. T. U., 
with an evaporation of from 10 to 12 pounds of water 
per pound of fuel. Oil-firing can therefore get out of a 
boiler almost 25 per cent more power than coal-firing. 

What the future holds in store for oil as a fuel, is not 
yet settled as regards the Eastern lines—those in the 
region of dear oil and cheap coal; but certainly, on the 
Western lines, oil-burning has now passed the experi¬ 
mental stage, and nothing short of exhaustion of the 
supply could turn its success into failure. The equip¬ 
ment of the Southern Pacific includes over 900 oil-burn¬ 
ing locomotives. The Santa Fe has 315 on its Coast 
lines, and about 200 on its Texas lines. The Salt Lake 
Line has 75; and all the smaller lines in California are 
using oil as fuel exclusively. The total number of oil¬ 
burning locomotives in the United States in 1906 was 
estimated at 1,800. 

The following are claimed as advantages of oil over 
coal as fuel: 

(1) Less waste of fuel. With ordinarily constructed 
locomotives, working pretty hard and using a violent 
exhaust, it is estimated that from 15 to 25 per cent of 
the coal escapes combustion, but with oil the combustion 
is practically complete. 

(2) Economy in handling fuel. Oil can be run into 
tank on tender from standpipe, same as water, and sup¬ 
plied to firebox by turning a valve always within fire¬ 
man’s reach. 


FUEL-OIL 


m 


( 3 ) Economy in handling ashes. With oil, there are 
no ashes to handle. 

(4) Economy in handling engines at terminals. Es¬ 
timated as at least 50 per cent less than the cost of 
handling coal-burners. 

(5) Diminished repairs to locomotives, especially fire¬ 
box repairs. It is only fair to note that in the case of 



Fig. 3 . Details of Oil-Burning Furnace. 


oil-burning locomotives the firebox and flues are sub¬ 
jected to very severe punishment, and it is exceptional 
when an engine will run two years without renewing 
firebox, or longer than twelve months with a set of 
flues. It is almost useless to attempt to patch side-sheets, 
for the heat is so intense that the extra thickness of 
metal prevents the heat from being taken up by the 
water, and the patch is soon burned. The side-sheets in 
an oil-burner crack most frequently immediately back 
of the arch, evidently because of the heat being most 
intense at that part of the firebox. 




















































































194 


FUEL-OIL 


(6) Economy in cleaning engines, due to absence of 
smoke and cinders around engine. 

(7) Less waste of steam at safety valve. It is esti¬ 
mated that in ordinary locomotive practice the waste 
of steam at the safety valve (which is equivalent to a 
waste of fuel) is about 5 per cent; but on an oil-burning 
locomotive, with proper care on the part of the fireman, 
there need be no waste of steam at all at the valve. 

(8) Economy in cleaning ballast. Cinders thrown 
from stack in coal-burning locomotives, choke up bal¬ 
last in roadbed, especially stone-ballast, interfering with 
drainage, and necessitating expenditure for cleaning. 

(9) Economy of space in storing and carrying fuel. 
As the weight of oil used by a locomotive for a given 
distance is about one-half the weight and bulk of coal 
for the same distance, the use of oil effects a saving not 
only in space but in the dead weight hauled; or, with 
the same weight of oil as of coal, fuel for a much longer 
run is carried. 

(10) No fires from sparks. In using oil, there are 
no burning sparks or cinders to set fire to buildings, 
bridges, or other property along the track. 

(11) Greater cleanliness and comfort for passengers, 
owing to absence of smoke and cinders—a point appre¬ 
ciated by the traveling public, and tending to increase 
traffic. 

(12) Possibility of utilizing more of the heat. Boiler 
flues must be large enough to avoid becoming choked 
up with cinders. In 'coal-burning locomotives, they 
range from i^j to 2 inches in diameter. If oil is used 
the flues may be made much smaller, and also be in¬ 
creased in number, thus increasing the extent of heating 
surface. 


01 L- BU RN I NG 
LOCOMOTIVES 

HOW CONSTRUCTED, FIRED, AND OPERATED. 

In Fig. i (p. 186) we show a coal-burner converted 
into an oil-burner. The positions of the various parts of 
the oil-burning fittings are indicated. The cost of con¬ 
verting a coal-burning locomotive into an oil-burner av¬ 
erages from $500 to $700, the chief item being the tender 
oil-tank, which has a capacity usually of from 2,000 to 
3,500 gallons. 

When a coal-burner is changed to an oil-burner the 
grates and grate frame are first removed. The ash pan 
is then remodeled by putting in a casting which fits the 
inside of the pan, which is riveted on the sides near the 
top. This serves as a support for the brickwork of the 
sides of the fire-box because it is cored out enough to ad¬ 
mit just enough air for the proper combustion of the oil 
in the fire-box The brick arch is usually built as low as 
possible, the chief purpose being to protect the crown 
sheet, crown bolts and seams from overheating. The 
oil burner is secured to the bottom of the mud ring ex- 
* actlv central and is placed at an angle so the jet or spray 
of oil will strike just below or under the arch. Details 
of the arrangements of piping and brickwork of an oil¬ 
burning locomotive are shown in Figs. 2 and 13. 

Ordinary commercial fire brick is used for side walls 
and inverted arch. Experience proves that fire bricks 
which soften under heat are preferable as they form a 
bond which adds strength to the wall and prevents it 


195 


196 


OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 



ATOMlie* OPtfiinG MOUTH Pi ect. 

C-r. • iwAnteo- 










































































































































OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 


197 


shattering under shocks. Fire bricks having very high 
heat-resisting qualities and claimed to crock when cool¬ 
ing are claimed to be of little use. 

THE BURNER OR ATOMIZER. 

One of the principal devices of an oil burning locomo¬ 
tive is the burner or atomizer, of which several designs 
are illustrated in Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 12. 

Burners are of two general types, known as “outside” 
or “inside” mixers, according to whether the steam jet 
used for vaporizing or spraying the oil is brought into 
contact with it in the air after both have left the burner, 
or whether this takes place inside the burner. Outside 
burners of the Booth type (Fig. 4) are used exclusively 
on the Santa Fe; and inside burners, “Sheedy” type 
(Fig. 5), are standard on the Southern Pacific. The 
“Hammer’ type (Fig. 6), used on the Salt Lake, is 
also an inside burner. Both types seem to give thorough 
satisfaction, so that the question which design to use 
does not seem to be of vital importance. 

* The purpose of the atomizer is to break up the oil into 
a fine spray. It is made of brass. In the Santa Fe burner 
(Fig. 4), steam enters bottom at one end and comes out 
through a slit at other end. The oil flows through the 
upper part of the burner over the hot partition and 
on issuing is caught by the steam and sprayed into the 
fire, which, when the engine is working, is a mass of 
flame filling the fire box. The supply of steam and oil to 
the burner is regulated by the fireman from the cab, the 
handles of the steam and oil supply valves being located 
so that he can readily manipulate them from his seat 

The Santa Fe burner is rigidly attached to the mud 
ring; it is a casting having an oblong passage. One 


198 


OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 


end of the casting is enlarged to receive connection with 
oil and steam pipes one above the other. The mouth of 
the steam passage is directly underneath the mouth of 
the oil passage and the effect of the steam pressure is to 
spray the oil as it flows from the upper passage. 



In the Southern Pacific burner (Fig. 5), there are 
three passages: one for oil, one for steam, one for air. 
Oil enters rear of burner from above, air is conveyed 
from below through a narrower passage to a com¬ 
mon mouth just behind which terminates a central tube 
- supplying steam. The mixture of oil, air and steam is 
there sprayed into the fire box through one nozzle. In 
the Southern Pacific arrangement the burner is located 
near the upper part of the bricked portion of the fire box, 
probably for the reason that the form of nozzle causes 
the spray to be thrown down as well as up. 

The type of burner used by the Baldwin Locomotive 
Works is rectangular in cross-section, with two separ¬ 
ated channels (one above the other) running its entire 
length (Fig. 8). Oil from the reservoir is admitted 
through a pipe into the upper channel, its flow being 

































































OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 


199 


Front View 
of" Burner 



t>de View 
of Bonner 



View of Burner wi 1 h 
front PloTe Removed 



View of Burner with 
Botforn Plate ffemexed 




Descfiptiom. 


A. Lower Steam Chamber. 

B. Upper Steam Chamber. 

O. Ports ConnecTirvgSTeam Chambers A £B 
D. Top atomizer from B to Q. 

£' Botforn ^tomizen to Ou/tfet. 

F.‘ Oil Met to flixinq Chamber <3 


( 3 . Mixing Chamber 
H. Outlet Orrificc. 

J. Front Plate. 

J. Bottom Plate 

K. Oil Supply Pipe. 

L. Stfearn 5opply 


The Hammel Improved Oil Burner> 




Fig, 6. "Hammel” Oil-Burner.—Salt Lake, 

































































200 


OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 














































































OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 


201 


controlled by a plug cock in the feed pipe, operated by a 
handle within easy reach of the fireman in the cab. 
Steam is admitted to the lower port of the bwrner through 
a pipe connected to the boiler in such a manner as at all 
times to insure the introduction of dry steam. The valve 
controlling the admission of steam is also conveniently 



.W 



/ 

Fig. 8. Baldwin Oil-Burner. 


located in the cab close to the fireman’s seat. A free 
outlet is allowed for the oil at the nose of the burner; 
the steam outlet, however, is contracted at this point by 
an adjustable plate which partially closes the port, and 
gives a thin, wide aperture for the exit of the steam, 
This arrangement tends to wire-draw the steam and in¬ 
crease its velocity at the point of contact with the oil, 
giving, it is claimed, a better atomizing effect. The 
plate after being once adjusted, need not be moved ex¬ 
cept for cleaning purposes. The oil, as it passes through 
the burner, is heated to a certain extent by the effect of 

























































202 


OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 


the steam in the lower portion, and flows freely in a thin 
layer over the orifice. It is here caught by the jet of 
steam issuing from the lower port, and is completely 
broken up and atomized at the point of igniting. The 
oil is carried into the firebox in the form of vapor, where 
it is mingled with a sufficient quantity of oxygen from 
the incoming air to insure as near as possible perfect 
combustion. 

The usual arrangement has been to place the burner 



Fig. 9. Baldwin Feed-Cock. 

The opening in the plug, being square, retains its angular form and permits of 
very fine feed adjustment. 

* 

at the back end of the firebox, using a brick arch; but 
latterly a design has appeared in which the same burner 
is used, but placed at the front end of the firebox. This 
does away with the need of the brick arch and thus ef¬ 
fects a great saving of expense. For the maintenance of 
the arch is one of the heaviest of all expenses incurred 
in oil-burning. An arch costs originally about $25, and 
the life is in some cases as short as two to three weeks, 
and rarely exceeds three months. In Figs. 1, 2, and 13, 
the burner is shown placed at back of firebox. Fig. 11 
shows an arrangement adopted on some Santa Fe loco¬ 
motives, with burner at front end of firebox, dispensing 
with the brickwork arch. 

With the Lassoe-Lovekin burner (Fig. 12), a special 
type recently developed and tested on the Santa Fe Coast 
Lines—all brickwork is done away with, except a cover- 













A 


Fig. 10. Details of “ Lundholm ” Oil-Burner. 


















































































204 


OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 



Flu, ii. OibBurnerat Front End of Firebox.—Santa Fe. 



















































































OIL-BURNING.LOCOMOTIVES 


205 


ing for the bottom of the ashpan. The oil is taken from 
the tank by means of a pump and delivered to the burner 
under a pressure of 120 pounds, being sprayed into fire¬ 
box from back end. 



The general arrangement of the firebox as adopted by 
the Baldwin Locomotive Works, is illustrated in Fig. 13. 
The burner is placed below the mud ring at the back 
and on a line with the center of the boiler, and is pointed 
upward at a slight angle. A firebrick arch at front of 
firebox protects tubes and gives direction to heated 
gases, insuring their mingling with the incoming air. 
The throat sheet below the arch is protected with a wall 
of firebrick. A layer of the same material is placed on the 
grate-bars (or equivalent supports), extending back from 
the front wall, and covering about half the bottom 



























































































































206 


OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 




•Fig. 13. Burner and Firebox Arrangement on Baldwin Locomotive. 

























































































































































OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 


207 


area of the furnace. A firebrick hearth is placed under 
the burner to catch any oil which may drop from it. A 
course of brick is also placed on each side, sufficiently 
high to protect the side sheets from excessive heat. A 
device corresponding to the ashpan of an ordinary loco¬ 
motive is fitted with a damper, preferably at the back, 



to govern the admission of air. This is made as large 
as possible, with heavy frame, and is arranged to close 
perfectly air-tight so as to avoid loss of heat by circula¬ 
tion of cold air through the firebox and tubes when the 
oil-supply is cut off. The firedoor may be retained, 
provided its joints are perfectly air-tight; or a plate 
with a convenient sight-hole may be used instead. In 
either case the inner surface of the door is protected by 
firebrick to avoid liability of warping the metal. 

In boilers with the Vanderbilt type of firebox, which 
is circular in cross-section, being rolled in the form of 
a large corrugated tube, the arrangement of the fire¬ 
brick is as shown in Fig. 14. In general principles it 
resembles the arrangement just described above, but dif¬ 
fers somewhat in details because of structural differences 
in the boiler. The burner is introduced through the lined 






































208 011-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 

casing forming the back head of the boiler, and is lo¬ 
cated a short distance above the bottom of the firebox. 
The corrugated sheet forming the firebox is protected 
at the bottom and a portion of the sides, by a lining of 
firebrick. The front wall and arch are placed at a suit¬ 
able distance back of the tube sheet, to allow an unob¬ 
structed entrance to all the tubes by the heated gases, 
forming also a combustion chamber at the front of the 
furnace. 


THE HEATER BOX. 

To provide against the effect of cold weather or 
heavy oil or when it is lacking in fluidity, a heater box 
is placed between the burner and oil tank to raise the 
oil to as high a temperature as possible before it goes 
into the burner. Its construction is shown in Fig. 15. 

CAB APPLIANCES. 

Details of the three-way-cock blower pipe connection 
to smoke arch and the oil throttle-valve-handle are shown 
in Figs. 1, 2 and 13. 

CLEANING FLUES.—SAND FUNNEL. 

The gum and soot generated in the combustion of the 
oil from the boiler flues should be removed from time 
to time. For this a funnel is used which is inserted in 
the fire-door through which sand is blown by steam 
with force, through the flues carrying with it the accre¬ 
tions of soot. This funnel is shown in detail in Fig. 16. 

The oil reservoirs or tanks are made to apply to coal 
burner tank, one of which is made V-shaped to fit in coal 
space, in height to be made flush with top of tank. The 







Fig. 2. Details of Piping and Brickwork.— Santa F 



















































































































































































































































































MATERIAL MO. 2 6 GALV. IRON. 

ONE POUND RIVET5 

Fig. 19 . Sand Funnel Used in Cleaning Flues.—Santa F£. 















































210 


OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 


other, or large tank, rectangular in shape, is made to fit 
on top of water tank, making perfect joint by connecting 
with small or V-shaped tank above mentioned. 

These two, or pair of tanks, have a capacity of eight 
tons fuel oil. They are firmly anchored to water tank 
and tank frame. There is but one manhole for oil, and 
that is located on top of rectangular-shaped tank imme¬ 
diately over the joint or opening in small tank in coal 
space. 

Each tank is fitted with automatic safety valve, with 
small chain or rope connection to the back of engine 
cab, with spring key which passes through upright rod of 
safety valve; in case of break-in-two between engine 
and tender this rope or chain pulls spring key out of rod, 
when safety valve will close automatically and stop feed 
or flow of oil from tank. An additional automatic or 
safety valve, also connected to engine by chain, is located 
in outlet oil pipe "between tank and burner, which in case 
of break-in-two is automatically closed. 

Heater pipes are placed in oil tank to reduce oil to 
proper consistency in cold weather. 

There are a great variety of oil burners; with some it 
is necessary to have a separate heater box, others are 
made with heater box and burner combined. 

In localities where heavy oil is used it is necessary to 
carry about five pounds pressure in oil tanks to facilitate 
proper feed of oil. With light gravity and in warm 
weather pressure in tank is not necessary. 

When new engines are furnished and built as oil burn¬ 
ers, they are generally equipped with what is known in 
Southern California as Standard Combination Oil and 
Water Tank. These are constructed with oil tank sub- 
merged inside water tank. 


OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 


211 


THE FUEL-OIL PROBLEM. 

Another authority says: To change from coal to oil 
fuel the grates are taken out and a cast-iron plate is 
placed 4 to 6 inches below the mud ring, extending over 
the entire space under the firebox. This plate has three 
openings for air to come up into the firebox, 9x15 
inches, one of these air openings being in the middle 
of the firebox, one near the front end and one near the 
back end. This plate is protected from the heat of the 
fire above by a covering of fire brick. The ash pan and 
dampers are left the same as a coal burner. The sides 
of the firebox are also protected from the direct force 
of the intense heat by a fire brick wall about 5 inches 
thick, which comes up to the flues in front, up above the 
flare of the firebox on the sides and to the bottom of the 
door at the back. There is a brick arch extending across 
the firebox from side to side, reaching back well towards 
the door, just the same as in a soft coal burner. Some 
engines also have a narrow arch just under the door, 
which -serves to keep the intense heat from the door ring. 

The side walls of brick in the box do not last long, 
some of them not over*three weeks. They can be patched 
by putting in new brick when holes are found in the old 
ones. Generally a whole new wall is put in at a time. 
With the oil burners the crown sheet lasts about as long 
as with coal, but the side sheets, even with the protection 
of the brick walls, give out at the flare of the box, near 
the door and at the top of the brick avails on the sides. 
The staybolts behind the brick walls leak some, but it 
does not se.em to- affect the steaming; the water runs 
down the sheet into the pan if it is not all evaporated at 
once. When the flues of an oil burnen begin to leak 


212 


OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 


badly they soon stop up, and she dies in short order. In 
this they are different from coal burners. 

The atomizer which separates the oil into a fine spray 
and blows it into the firebox is located just 'under the 
mud ring, pointing a little upward, so the stream of oil 
spray and steam would strike the opposite wall of the 
box a few inches above the bottom, if it was to fly clear 
across the box. Deep fireboxes have the atomizer at the 
back end of the box,-while the shallow and long fire¬ 
boxes have it located at the front end, pointed back. The 
shallow boxes have the same arrangement of side walls 
that the deep ones have, but the arch is put in differently; 
some of them have three small arches extending from 
side to side, but lapping over each other from front to 
back, so as to divide the current of flame and heat 
into several parts and thus distribute it over the long, 
shallow box more evenly. A good deal depends on the 
size and position of the arch, which has the same effect 
on the steaming of an oil burner that the diaphragm in 
the front end has on the draft of a coal burner. No air 
is admitted above the fire of the atomized oil. 

The atomizers (one for each engine is used) are of 
brass, 12 inches long, 4T2 inches wide from side to side 
and 2 inches thick from top to bottom, divided into two 
parts by a partition in the middle. Steam comes into the 
bottom part, heats the atomizer and issues through a 
slit 1-32 by 4 inches. The oil flows into the top part of 
the atomizer over the hot partition, and on running out 
of the front end is caught by the steam issuing from the 
slit in the bottom part, and is sprayed into the fire, which, 
when the engine is working, is a mass of flame, filling 
the firebox under the arch, and most of the time the 
whole box. If the supply of oil fed in is more than can 


OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 


213 


be consumed in the box you will occasionally see little 
flashes of flame at the top of the stack. 

The supply of steam and oil to the atomizer is regu¬ 
lated bv the fireman from the cab, the handles for the 
steam and oil supply valves being placed where he can 
have his hands on them when on his seat box. He is 
located where he can see the gauge clearly, and as he 
sometimes pumps the engine with the left-hand injector, 
it has to be handy also. 

Before the oil is .fed into the atomizer it passes 
through a small heater made of brass, having a steam 
pipe through it; this same steam pipe also leads to a coil 
in the bottom of oil tank to warm the oil so it will flow 
easily. The oil on the Pacific Coast is not at all like the 
fuel oil we get from Indiana or the Lima field. Some of 
it has a generous portion of thick stuff like asphaltum in 
it, so it does not flow very easily; while other kinds are 
thin as water, and almost as clear. 

The oil tank is located in the pit of the water tank, 
where we usually carry coal. In the tenders built espe¬ 
cially for oil burners the oil tank is surrounded by the 
water. An air pipe leads from the main reservoir to the 
oil tank, with a reducing valve similar to the one used 
in the air signal line, but with a different spring box, 
so as to reduce the very high main reservoir pressures 
carried on the mountain engines down to 4 pounds, 
which is maintained in the oil tank, so the oil comes out 
freely. Self-closing valves are provided to shut off the 
flow of oil in case the engine breaks loose from the ten¬ 
der. as in case of accident the oil flowing into the wreck 
would make a bad matter worse. The exhaust tip is 
about the same size as the engine would have if she was 
burning good coal. Some of the engines have no changes 


214 


OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 


made in the front end except to take out the netting; oth¬ 
ers have a low nozzle and petticoat pipe put in instead of 
high nozzle and a diaphragm or apron. I was somewhat 
surprised at this, as it would seem that more air could 
be - drawn into the box through three openings 9x15 
inches in size than could come through a coal fire. An¬ 
other surprise was the fact that oil burners make con¬ 
siderable smoke, although it was stated by some of the 
enginemen that if properly handled they would make no 
smoke; others said it was no harm if they made a little 
smoke at times. The oil makes a sort of sticky deposit 
in the flues, which soon coats them and interferes with 
the steaming. To cure this difficulty, the fireman sticks 
a long funnel through a hole in the firebox door made 
for that purpose, and gives the flues a dose of about four 
quarts of sand, which is drawn through the flues and 
scours them out. When this sand goes through, a black 
cloud comes out of the stack as thick as from any soft 
coal burner. 

If this oil could be vaporized by heat as easily as it is 
atomized by steam, that is, changed into a gas instead of 
a spray, like gasoline is burned, it might be made smoke¬ 
less ; but the oil has a heavy residuum in it that cannot 
be vaporized very well. Then, the changing conditions 
under which the engine is worked interfere with per¬ 
fect combustion. At one time, when working hard, a 
large stream of oil flows into the atomizer; when switch¬ 
ing or running shut off a very little is used; so the fire¬ 
man has to open and close the oil supply valve with every 
change in the work of the engine. As there is no bed of 
live coal to hold back the air, just enough oil must be 
admitted and burned to heat all the air drawn in by the 
exhaust, for if this air struck the flues cold, as it would 


OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 


215 


be sure to do if too small a supply of oil was burning, 
the cold air would soon set the flues leaking. 

When these oil burners are in good order and properly 
handled it is astonishing how they will steam. When 
working on a hill with a full train and a steady pull 
for 21 miles, a ten-wheel Baldwin with 21 x 28-inch 
cylinders and 56-inch drivers would pick right up with 
both injectors on full, and these injectors large enough 
so one of them would ordinarily supply her. Of course, 
if not properly handled, oil burners will lag on their 
steam, but ordinarily they steam “like a house afire,” as 
one of the firemen expressed it. 

Firing one of them is not the soft snap some imagine 
because there is no real coal to handle. The fireman 
has to stay right on his box, and with his hand on the 
handle of the oil supply valve, which is like the handle 
of F-6 brake valve, with very fine notches in the quad¬ 
rant or ledge, he watches the gauge and the engineer and 
regulates the supply of oil to suit the work. When run¬ 
ning shut off or switching at stations, it is a close matter 
to allow enough oil to go to the atomizer to keep the 
fire alive and not have too much. 

There is a good deal of water in the oil, and they are 
so near the same specific gravity that the water comes 
through with the oil. When a charge of water conies 
through the fire goes out for an instant, but lights up 
again when the oil comes again. The end of the supply 
pipe for the oil is located a little way above the bottom 
of the oil tank, so as to draw oil only, but the water 
comes in also. There is a drain pipe in the bottom of the 
oil tank, which can be opened at any time to drain off 
the water. 

Several forms of atomizers are used, but most of them 


216 


OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 


follow a general principle. On the Southern Pacific, 
Master Mechanic Sheedy uses one that was illustrated 
on page 151 of the April issue of Locomotive Engineer¬ 
ing for 1900. This form has an air draft in with the 
oil, which helps the work of the atomizer. On a station¬ 
ary engine it is smokeless. The one used on the Santa 
Fe has no air openings in it. 

As to the relative expense of oil and coal for fuel, coal 
is so high priced there that oil does the work cheaper. 
Good coal at Los Angeles and San Bernardino costs 
$6.50 to $7.50 ; oil costs about $2 a ton less. Where they 
burn good coal it takes a little more than a ton of coal 
to equal a ton of oil, but at Barstow and east of there, 
where the coal is poor, it takes nearly two tons of coal 
to equal one ton of oil. The engines do not steam as 
freely with the coal, so they cannot make as good time 
or handle a large train at as high rate of speed. Time 
in transit is of some account and is worth money. 

In the east, the country of cheap coal and dear oil, 
we will not be apt to see any oil burners for some time, 
except for special purposes. If some of the poor steam¬ 
ers that handle heavy passenger trains were turned into 
oil burners it would enable the engines to do better work, 
for there is apparently no limit to the steaming power of 
an oil burner. 

At terminals there is no waiting to clean fires, arches 
or flues before the engine can go back. If the ma¬ 
chinery is all right they take oil and water at the same 
time, and the engine is ready to go out, which is a sav¬ 
ing when short of powei;. The oil is fed into the tender 
from elevated tanks just the same as we take water, and 
as quickly. Storage tanks are located along the road 
where needed, the same as coal chutes. At San Bernar- 


OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 


217 


dino the Santa Fe has a large main storage tank 96 
feet in diameter and 30 feet high, which holds one and 
one-half million gallons. All the oil at this point is 
elevated and handled with compressed air with no waste. 

The tanks along the road are much smaller affairs, 
like small water tanks. 

FIRING LIQUID FUEL. 

An Impression prevails that on locomotives burning 
liquid fuel the fireman has nothing to do but open the 
valve admitting the oil and the burners will do the rest. 
The instructions issued by the Southern Pacific indicate 
that care and skill are requisite to burn liquid fuel prop¬ 
erly. They are as follows: 

"Please see that following rules are adhered to in fir¬ 
ing and management of oil-burning engines: 

"Before departure, see that oil tanks are full, oil 
heater in operation and oil heated to proper temperature 
as soon as possible; also that fire is burning, that no oil 
is dropping or lying in outer pan, and that no brick or 
other obstruction to the free passage of oil from the 
burner to front wall is lying on bottom of inner pan, 
and that sand buckets are full. 

“Starting the Fire. —When firebox is below igniting 
point, which is a dull red, open dampers, start blower 
and atomizer medium hard, throw a piece of saturated 
oilv waste, after lighting same, on to the bottom of inner 
pan; close and fasten firebox door, then turn on oil very 
light, and see if it ignites at once. If not, shut off oil 
at once, and see if waste is burning. When oil has ig¬ 
nited, reduce blower and atomizer to very light feed, 
also reduce oil flow until stack becomes almost clear. 
Starting the fire by the hot firebox, no waste is used. 


218 


OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 


“Temperature of Oil. —Kern River or thick oil to 
be heated to from 150 to 170 degrees, McKittrick or 
thin oil from 100 to 120 degrees; temperature to be 
taken from measuring rod suspended in forward tank. 
Vents on top of oil tanks to be kept open at all times, 
except when tanks are very full and oil is liable to splash 
out, they may be closed until oil is reduced from 5 to 7 
inches in tanks, care being taken not to have any lights 
in hands when they are first opened after having been 
closed any length of time. 

“Heating Oil by Direct Steam Application. —Put 
heater on strong until oil has reached the proper temper¬ 
ature, then close it off, give it another application. To 
keep the heater on light and constant might produce wa¬ 
ter enough in oil to become objectionable. 

“Heating by the Coil in Tank. — Open cock on 
boiler head just sufficient to produce steam water at drain 
cock under tank. Superheater should be used constantly 
when weather is any way chilly. Keep drain cock to 
superheater open just sufficient to keep cylinder dry. 

“Starting Train or Engine. —Engine should not be 
started until fireman is at firing valve. Remember that 
the care of firebox is as important as keeping up steam 
or making time. Start engine carefully, so, if possible, 
not to slip engine. Open firing valve sufficiently to make 
sure that action of exhaust will not put out fire, but not 
enough to make great volumes of black smoke. Increase 
atomizer and oil gradually until full speed is attained, 
keeping just on verge of black smoke. When engine is 
hooked up, valves governing the admission of oil will be 
regulated according to required amount. It is well to 
use the blower about one-half turn while starting, as 


OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 


219 


this will help to consume smoke between exhausts; also, 
keep engine hot. 

“Black Smoke. —Never make an excessively heavy 
smoke, as it only fills flues with soot, which is a great 
nonconductor of heat and produces no heat in itself. 
Strive to keep stack clear at all times, except when start¬ 
ing. 

“Sanding Flues. —Sand as frequently as required, 
according to amount of smoke made. If engine has to 
be smoked anyway hard, sand every io or 12 miles. 
But if stack is kept clear, sand every 30 to 50 miles. If 
any amount of switching is done at a station, sand im¬ 
mediately after leaving that station. 

“How to Sand. —Having attained a fair rate of speed, 
use about one quart of sand, close all dampers, put re¬ 
verse lever near full stroke, open throttle wide, and allow 
sand to be drawn from funnel in a thin stream. Going 
into stations where stops are to be made great care must 
be exercised not to cut oil supply too low before throttle 
is closed. 

“Any draft through firebox has a tendency to put fire 
out; the stronger the draft the stronger must be the oil 
supply. Consequently, there is great danger of fire being 
put entirely out before throttle is closed. When throttle 
is closed and oil reduced, the atomizer must be cut down 
at once, so it will just keep oil from dropping on bottom 
of inner pan, otherwise the intense heat of the firebox 
will be blown down through air inlet burning bottoms 
of pans. 

“Never allow fire to be put entirely out, -except when 
giving up engine at end of run or when all hands are 
going away from engine 0 Then it must be put out. To 
put out fire, first close stop-cock under tank, allow oil to 


220 


OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 


all be drawn from pipe and burner, then close firing 
valve, atomizer and all dampers. To blow obstruction 
from oil line, close firing valve, open cock between-heater 
line and oil line, close heater line and turn cock on boiler 
head to heater line on full. This will blow all obstruc¬ 
tions back in tank. This arrangement may be used to 
heat oil in tank in case of failure of coil heater. If any 
brick from walls or arches in firebox should fall in front 
of burner, it must be removed at once or pushed to the 
extreme front of firebox. Blue gas issuing from stack 
is indication that the fire is out or very nearly so. It is 
very objectionable and should be avoided if possible, 
especially so on passenger trains. 

“Burners must be adjusted so that oil will strike about 
middle of front wall. If oil drags on bottom of pan, 
black smoke and poor steam will result. Burners are 
liable to clog up with sand that is in oil and by pieces 
of waste that are sucked up by air inlet. If trouble is 

found with it, the inner case or steam jet can be taken 

out in most cases without disturbing the outer case or 
adjustment of burner. In this manner any obstruction 
or defect may be readily located and remedied. The 
blower must never be used stronger than just sufficient 
to clear stack of black smoke. Any more is only a waste 
of fuel and a delay, as too strong a draft through fire¬ 
box for the amount of oil admitted only absorbs heat 
and cools instead of heating firebox. At water tanks, 
where it is necessary to keep injector on all the time 

the train is standing, the oil supply must be left on a 

little heavy and blower on lightly. This will insure a 
full head of steam when ready to start. As the oil pene¬ 
trates the arch brick and causes them to crumble away 
very fast, it is important to examine firebox frequently 


OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 


221 


to know condition of it. As steam pressure increases on 
boiler, atomizer and blower will work stronger unless 
they are cut down. Be governed accordingly. Also re¬ 
member that black smoke is very detrimental to steam 
generating, and that the more that is made, the more 
it becomes necessary to make.” 

To burn oil successfully no smoke must be made, as 
this lavs a coat of soot on flues and sheets, which keeps 
the heat away. It may be asked why does soot accumu¬ 
late on flues more with oil fuel than it does with coal? 
Simply because with coal you have cinders and particles 
of coal to keep it cut off, while with oil you have nothing 
passing through the flues but smoke, heat and gases. 
But sand is carried along for this purpose. If flues be¬ 
come sooted a quart or so is put into the firebox while 
the engine is working hard and is drawn through the 
flues at a high velocity, cutting the soot off to a great 
extent. When the throttle is closed and the fire being 
cut down great care must be exercised or fire will be 
put entirely out and this is what makes oil fuel so hard 
on fireboxes. Going into stations where stops are to be 
made, the sheets are expanded with the intense heat, and 
the careless fireman in cutting down his fire puts it en- 
tirelv out. Take in consideration natural draft and add 
to it velocity of moving train, and pump exhaust, all 
drawing cold air through firebox, cooling sheets and flues, 
and the consequences are sure to be disastrous to them. 
Of course, burning oil in locomotives is in its infancy, 
and there is room for a great deal of improvement, but 
considering the length of time we have been at it, it cer¬ 
tainly is remarkable to see how those engines go up the 
hill with their heavy trains, with plenty steam and no 
smoke, no dust, no cinders and no sweating fireman. 


222 OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 

GENERAL RULES FOR FIRING AND OPERAT¬ 
ING AN “OIL-BURNER.” 

In firing up an oil burning locomotive in the round 
house, steam connection is made to the three way cocks 
on the smoke arch which acts, as a blower and atomizer 
at the same time; then throw in the fire box, in front of 
the burner, a piece of greasy lighted waste; then start 
the oil to running slightly; then open the atomizer valve 
enough to atomize the oil which is flowing from the 
burner, and the oil will instantly ignite. The fire should 
be watched until steam begins to generate in the engine, 
when the round house steam canjbe cut off. Care should 
be taken not to turn on too much oil, for the explosion 
would drive the flame out of the fire box and might be 
the cause of injury to the operator. Care must also be 
taken to see that the fire does not go out when first 
started in a cold engine; if it does and is not noticed the 
oil will run into the pit and may take fire later on and ex¬ 
plode and thus damage the engine. The fire must there¬ 
fore be carefully watched until its burning is well as¬ 
sured after which there is little danger of this happen¬ 
ing. Fire going out on an oil burning engine can be 
detected readily by observing the smoke coming out of 
the stack. If it is of a white, milky color, it indicates 
that the fire has gone out and that the oil is still running 
out into the pan; this smoke is caused by the heat of 
the brick in the bottom of the pan. That the fire has 
gone out can also be detected by the odor. 

In firing up an oil burning locomotive where steam is 
not available, wood may be used until ten or fifteen 
pounds of steam is generated in the boiler. The wood 
must be placed in the fire Tox wth great care so as not 
to damage the 1 brick work, and in using wood for this 


OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 


223 


purpose care must be taken to avoid causing fires along 
the right of way or elsewhere. 

It is very important that the proper amount of steam 

be admitted to the burner as an atomizer. It is also 
» t ' 
very important that the brick walls and arch of the loco¬ 
motive be kept in perfect condition. Occasionally small 
pieces of brick will fall down and lodge in front of the 
burner, which will interfere with the engine steaming. 
All engines should be equipped with a pair of light tongs 
or a hook so that the fireman can remove these pieces of 
brick if necessary. 

In oil burning engines it is necessary to occasionally 
use sand for cleaning the gum off the end of flues in 
the fire box. This sand is applied through an elbow¬ 
shaped funnel made for the purpose; the nozzle of the 
funnel is inserted through an aperture in the firedoor, 
and when sand is being applied by the fireman the en¬ 
gineer drops the lever in the corner notch and has his 
throttle wide open. This is very effective, and is only 
used three or four times in going over a long hard divi¬ 
sion. 

In handling the oil burner on the road the engineers 
and firemen must work in harmony, i. e., when an en¬ 
gineer wishes to shut off the throttle he should notify 
the fireman in time so that the latter can close the oil 
valve in order to prevent waste of oil, the emission of 
black smoke and the “popping off" of the engine; and 
again, in starting up, the engineer should notify the fire¬ 
man so that the oil valve may be opened before the 
throttle, and the fire burning before any cold air is drawn 
into the fire box by the exhaust. In opening the valve the 
flow of oil should be gradually increased as the engineer 
increases the working of the engine. If this rule is 


OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 


oia. 

carried out it will in a great measure prevent leaky flues, 
crown and stay bolts. Fire boxes can be easily damaged 
bv over-firing. 

In a coal burner if an engine drops back five or ten 
pounds pressure it takes some little time to regain it; in 
an oil burner the fire can be crowded so as to bring it up 
almost instantly and thereby overheat the plates and 
cause damage to the firebox. The practice should be to 
consume about as much time in bringing up steam on 
an oil burner as would be taken with a coal burner; too 
much care cannot be exercised in this particular. It is 
possible to melt the rivets off the inside of an oil burner 
fire box by over-firing. 

In drifting down long grades, it is preferable to keep 
the fire burning a little rather than to shut it off entirely 
to prevent chilling of the fire box, adjusting the dampers 
to suit a light fire. The water can be carried in such a 
wav approaching such points as will admit of working 
the injector occasionally to prevent popping off. 

The use of the blower should be restricted all pos¬ 
sible. It tends to make the fire box leak. Tf the blower 
is used at all it should be used very lightly, simply 
enough to cause a draught. 

Some troubles have been encountered on account of 
waste getting into the oil tank; these are caused by 
carelessness on the part of Hostlers and Helpers in 
measuring the oil and wiping the measuring stick off 
with waste. Waste should therefore not be used for this 
purpose. 


DON’TS. 

Do not approach the man hole or vent holes of a tank 
closer than ten feet with a lighted torch or lantern. 


OIL-BURNING. LOCOMOTIVES 


225 


Do not take a lighted torch or lantern to a man hole 
to ascertain the amount of oil in the tank; this should 
be done by the insertion of a stick or rod and the same 
carried to the light to ascertain the number of inches of 
oil shown on the stick or rod. 

Do not, when making repairs to, or inspection of, an 
empty tank, place a lighted lamp or torch inside of the 
same before it has been thoroughly steamed and washed 
out, as gas will accumulate in an empty tank not so 
steamed and washed out, and explosion is liable. Em¬ 
ployees are positively prohibited from entering tanks 
having contained crude oil, until the instructions to thor- 
, oughly steam and wash them out have been complied 
with. 

Do not, in firing up, apply the atomizer and oil be¬ 
fore putting in the lighted waste, as gas may accumulate 
in the fire box and thus cause an explosion. 

In starting up or stopping, the engineer must always 
notify the fireman, as the starting or shutting off of fire 
must in all cases precede the opening and shutting off 
of the engine. 

Before starting the fire raise back damper. See that 
the bottom of fire box in front of burner is free from 
brick or other obstructions that would interfere with 
free passage of oil from burner to front of fire box. 
Also see that there is no oil in the pan. Open blower 
strong enough to create necessary draught. Open ato¬ 
mizer valve long enough to blow water out of pipe. 
Then close valve and light a piece of oily waste and 
throw it to the center of the firebox. Then turn on ato¬ 
mizer strong enough to carry oil to fire. Open valve 
slowly until the oil ignites, using only enough oil to 
generate steam without making black smoke. In firing 


226 


OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 


up a cold engine the fire may go out. Watch it closely 
until the engine is hot. If at any time it should become 
necessary to fire up with wood, care should be taken 
that the brick work is not damaged. 

Do not force the firing. Bring the fire box temper¬ 
ature up gradually. If pressure falls back five or ten 
pounds, restore the maximum pressure by gradual de¬ 
grees. Forced firing will overheat the plates, burn oft 
rivet heads, and cause leaks. 

In sanding the flues to clean out the accumulations 
of soot and gum. drop the lever to half stroke and use 
full throttle for a few turns, while the sand is being 
injected. 

Successful combustion of petroleum is smokeless. 

An accurate combination of steam and oil in the ato¬ 
mizer and air admission is necessary to thorough com¬ 
bustion. To this end the steam and oil valves and damp¬ 
ers must be adjusted closely. 

As all petroleum contains a greater or less per cent 
of volatile gases, which are given off at low tempera¬ 
tures, lighted torches, lamps or lanterns should never 
be taken in or near tanks containing oil.* 

“While there are a few things to say against an oil¬ 
burning device on a locomotive, there are a great many 
things to say in its favor. It will reduce the life of flues 
and firebox about 25 per cent: while on the other hand 
it is perfectly free from starting fires on the right-of-way 
or setting fire to equipment. The cost of handling fuel 
is at least 75 per cent cheaper than that of coal. It does 
away with elinkering of engines at terminals and on the 
road; reduces the time consumed in turning power: does 

*The foregoing rules are those in force on the Santa Fe 
system. 



OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 227 

not have any cinders to take care of. If the oil crane 
and water tank are spotted at places so that the oil and 
water can be taken at the same time, there is no reason 
why an engine cannot be turned in from 20 to 25 min¬ 
utes. There is little or nothing to get wrong with an 
oil burner, so far as the oil-burning apparatus is con¬ 
cerned ; burner may stop up with sediment or burst from 
heat, but these are rare occurrences. 


PUTTING OUT FIRES. 

First shut off the oil valve on tank. Allow oil to be 
burned from pipe to burner. Then close firing valve, 
atomizer and dampers. It is important that damper 
should be closed to prevent passage of cold air through 
fire box and tubes, when they are heated after the fire 
has been extinguished, 


PREVENTION OF SMOKE 

Black smoke should be at all times avoided and if in 
evidence shows faulty construction of brick work or 
improper methods of handling. The soot formed by 
smoke is a non-conductor and will make an oil burning 
engine fail in steam quicker than any other cause. An 
accurate combination of oil and steam in the atomizer, 
with the proper admission of air, is necessary to thor¬ 
ough combustion. To prevent smoke in starting and 
stopping, engineers should always notify the fireman 
whert they are going to open or close the throttle. 


228 


OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 


CAUSES OF FAILURES AND HOW TO PRE¬ 
VENT THEM IN OIL-BURNERS. 

First.—Smoke which stops up the flues with soot. 

The firing valve should be opened gradually when en¬ 
gine is first started. Care should be taken to maintain 
the temperature of the fire box as nearly uniform as 
possible. The supply of oil should be gradually in¬ 
creased as the engine increases in speed in accordance 
with the requirements of service. Do not force the 
firing. If the pressure falls back five or ten pounds, 
restore the maximum pressure by degrees. Forced firing 
will fill the flues with soot, over-heat the sheets, burn 
off rivet heads and cause the boiler to leak. 

/ 

Second.—Improper sanding. 

The engine should be well sanded on going from the 
round-house to train, where practicable; again in pulling 
out; and several times the first mile or two. This is very 
important as engines are more liable to be smoked up 
in starting the fire and around terminals than after start¬ 
ing. Keep on sanding as long as quantities of black 
smoke follow the act of sanding. If the supply of sand 
runs short you can take it from the main sand-box or 
get it from the cinder pot in front end and use it over 
again. Always hold the funnel in a position to carry 
the sand over instead of under the arch. 

Third.—Insufficient flow of oil to burner. 

Burners are liable to clog up with sand that is in the 
oil, or by pieces of waste sucked up by the air inlet. A 
partial or complete stoppage of oil pipe or burner may 
be overcome by using the blow-back valve. To use this, 
open tank valve, closing firing valve, and open cock over 
super-heater. This will' blow steam back through oil 
supply pipe. Then close tank valve and open firing 


OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 


229 


valve. This will blow steam through oil pipe to burner. 
If the obstruction is not removed by doing this the pipes 
will have to be disconnected or atomizer tube removed. 
Care should be taken to see that this blow-back valve 
is closed except when used for blowing out pipe or 
burner. If left open or leaking it will prevent free pas¬ 
sage of oil to burner, thereby causing a series of ex¬ 
plosions. Sometimes a partial obstruction may be over¬ 
come by closing the air intake valve. This creates a par¬ 
tial vacuum in the burner. If oil flows out of the in¬ 
take pipe it is evident that the obstruction is in the rub¬ 
ber hose from pipe to burner. This becomes burned 
from the heat of the boiler and closes up. Also the same 
with the hose from the supply tank to engine as the 
action of the oil on the rubber has a tendency to soften 
it and causes same to close up. 

Fourth.—Water in oil. 

In case the fire goes out from unknown causes you 
should ascertain whether there is water in the oil, by 
opening the drain cock. Water accumulates in oil tanks 
sometimes by improper handling of heater. Opening it 
only a small amount and leaving it on continually, is bad 
practice. Put it on strong, heat the oil and shut it off. 
This should be done as much as possible when standing. 

Fifth.—Fallen brick on bottom of fire box or striking 
an obstruction caused by an accumulation of asphalt. 

An engine will not steam well and will cause an ex¬ 
cessive amount of black smoke if the fire drags on bot¬ 
tom or strikes a fallen brick. Round-house men should 
inspect 'and clean pan under burner thoroughly. Crews 
should inspect and take them out or push them forward 
and remove the accumulation of asphalt and sand. The 
best time to do this is when the fire has just been par- 


230 


OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 


tially shut off while at a station. Too much attention 
cannot be given to this matter. 

Sixth.—Partial or complete closing of atomizer tube 

• ^' 

in burner. 

If the full opening of the atomizer valve will not re¬ 
move obstruction the tube must be taken out of the 
burner. In most engines this can be done in from five 
to ten minutes. 

Seventh.—Slipping or working the engine hard with 
fire out. 

Slipping or working the engine hard with the fire 
out or starting before the fire is lighted, will cause the 
flues to leak almost immediately. Great care should be 
taken to prevent this. Should it become necessary to 
do any work inside of the oil tanks after they are empty, 
first fill the tank with water. Put in a few pounds of 
caustic soda. Then turn on steam through the heater 
pipe, until water boils over the manhole. Petroleum 
contains a greater or less per cent of volatile gases which 
are given off at a low temperature ; therefore under no 
circumstances should lighted torches, lamps or lanterns 
be taken into tanks or near the openings that have con¬ 
tained crude oil until they have been thoroughly cleansed. 


A FEW POINTERS THAT SHOULD BE 
REMEMBERED. • 

Do not leave the fire door unfastened when starting 
fire for if too much oil is turned on an explosion may 
occur which will drive the flames out of the door and 
might injure any one in the cab. 


OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 


231 


Do not use the blower at any time stronger than is 
necessary to clear the stack Of black smoke as it is a 
waste of fuel, makes an unnecessary noise and if the fire 
is burning lightly will cause the flues to leak. Do not 
start the engine without having the firing valve opened 
sufficiently to insure a good fire so that the cold air may 
not be drawn through the flues by the exhaust. Do not 
go nearer than ten feet to a manhole or venthole in a 
tank with a lighted torch or lantern. To ascertain the 
amount of oil in the tank use the rod made for that pur¬ 
pose, carrying it to the light to find the number of 
inches or gallons in the tank, unless you have an incan¬ 
descent globe to carry with you. Do not allow the air 
supply cut off from fire by asphalt, sand or pieces of fal¬ 
len brick accumulating in the pan ; hoe it out. Do not 
start fire without first lighting a piece of oily waste. If 
in backing down to train or switch engines backing 
down in yard the fire should go out, shut off the oil and 
start fire by lighting a piece of waste, for if you do 
not do this you are liable to cause an explosion, 






Locomotive Parts 
Alphabetically Arranged 


233 


DIFFERENT PARTS OF A LOCOMOTIVE 
ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED. 

Engineers, firemen and others whose duties make it 
desirable to do so should learn the names and uses of 
the various parts o*f a locomotive. 

Students who have to prepare for examinations will 
find such knowledge indispensable. 

The names of the parts shown in the accompanying 
folder plate of an eight-wheel locomotive, which gives 
the location of 254 parts, are arranged here in alpha¬ 
betical form, and the reference number is given by which 
any part can be quickly found. 

Two large folder plates showing in detail the parts of 
a modern “Prairie” type (2-6-2) locomotive, will be 
found in the volume “Locomotive Breakdown Questions,” 
published by Railway Publications Society, Chicago. 


A 


Air Bellringer. 

•133 

Air Pump Lubricator . ... 

.206 

Air Brake Hose. 

• 5 

Air Pump Throttle. 

.214 

Air Cylinder Brake Pump. 169 

Air Signal Hose. 

• 4 

Air Drum . 

. 99 

Air Signal Pipe. 

. 88 

Air Drum Bracket........ 

. 98 

Air Strainer . 

.171 

Air Gauge . 

.207 

Arch Brace . 

. 10 

Air Pipe to Bellringer. . . . 

.247 

Arch Hand Rail . 

• 39 

Air Pipe to Governor. 

.248 

Ash Pan .. 

• 139 

Air Pump Exhaust Pipe.. 

. 29 

Ash Pan Dumper Handle. 

.228 

Back Crank Pin. 

B 

•253 

Balance Plate . 

. 46 

Back Cylinder Head. 

• 58 

Balance Slide Valve . 

• 47 

Back Up Eccentric. 

•159 

Bell . 


Back Up Eccentric Rod... 

. 162 

Bell Ringer Valve . 

.246 

Back Up Eccentric Strap. 

.163 

Bell Stand .. 



234 

























LOCOMOTIVE PARTS 


235 


Blower . 30 

Blower Cock .211 

Boiler Jacket .127 

Boiler Lagging.126 

Cab .205 

Cab Bracket .239 

Check Valve .121 

Check Valve Case.120 

Chime Whistles.202 

Circumferential Seam.125 

Cleaning Door. 25 

Connection to Truck Brake 

Cylinder .243 

Counter Balance Spring and 

Rig .1 15 


Counter Balance Weight...240 
Cylinder Saddle . 


Deflector Plate .27 

Dome .198 

Dome Cap .199 

Dome Casing .200 

Draw Bar Plate . 2 

Drip-Cock.173 

Driver Brakes .140 

Driver Brake Cut-Out Cock.244 
Driver Springs .141 


Driver Spring Equalizer .. 143 
Driver Spring Hangers ... 142 


Eccentric Connection Back¬ 
up .109 

Eccentric Connection Go- 

ahead .no 

Engine Brake Auxiliary . .242 
Engine Brake Triple Valve.241 


Brake Valve Reservoir... .230 


Branch Pipe. ..119 

Bridges . 53 

Buffer Beam. 7 

C 

Coupler,. 3 

Crosshead. . 96 

Crosshead Pin.95 

Cut-out Valve.221 

Cylinder . 57 

Cylinder Casing . 67 

Cylinder Chute. 12 

Cylinder Chute Slide. 13 

Cylinder Cocks . 68 

Cylinder Cock Lever .223 

Cylinder Cocks Rigging.... 69 
Cylinder Lagging . 66 


Driver Spring Hanger 


Brace .144 

Driving Axle .151 

Driving Box .150 

Driving Box Shoe .147 

Driving Box Wedge .148 

Driving Wheel Centers ...138 

Driving Wheel Tire .•.137 

Dry Pipe .191 

Dry Pipe Hangers .193 

Dry Pipe Joint . 35 

E 

Engine Trucks . 70 

Engine Trucks Axle .73 

Engine Trucks Box . 75 

Engine Trucks Brace.74 


Engine Trucks Equalizer .. 80 
Engine Trucks Frame .... 77 






















































236 


LOCOMOTIVE PARTS 


Engine Trucks 

Frame 


Engine Trucks Spring 

Brace . 



Hanger . 

,. 81 

Engine Trucks Pedestal .. 76 


Engine Truck Tire . 

. 72 

Engine Trucks Pedestal 


Engine Truck Wheel ... 

• 7 i 

Brace .. *. 

. 78 


Engineer’s Brake Valve. 

. .218 

Engine Trucks Spring .... 82 


Exhaust Pipe . 

• 54 

Engine Trucks 

Spring 


Expansion Link . 


Band . 

. 83 


Expansion Pad . 


Extension Front ... 




• 14 

Feed Pipe . 

.236 

F 

Frame Brace . 

.156 

Feed Pipe Hanger 

.235 


Frame Splice . 

.157 

Feed Pipe Hose ... 

.237 


Front Cylinder Head .... 

. 64 

Fire Box . 

.186 


Front Frame . 


Fire Door . 



Front Frame . 

• 97 

Flagstaff . 

. 9 


Front Signal Line Cock.. 

. 84 

Flues . 



Front Train Line Cock.. 

• 55 

Gauge Cocks . 

.219 

G 

Go-ahead Eccentric Strap 

161 

Gauge Lamp . 

212 


Governor . 

.177 

Glass Water Gauge 

. -251 


Grate Shaking Rig . 

. 164 

Go-ahead Eccentric 

.158 


Guides . 

. 89 

Go-ahead Eccentric Rod .160 


Guide Block . 

. 91 

Guide Yoke . 


H 

1 


Hand Hold .. 



Headlight Case . 


Hand Rail . 



Headlight Reflector . 

• 23 

Hand Rail Brackets 

. 130 


Headlight Step . 

• 15 

Headlight Bracket 

. 21 


Horizontal Boiler Seam . 

.124 

Headlight Burner ., 

. 24 


Hose Hanger . 

. 6 

Injector . 

. 179 

i 

Injector Overflow . 



Injector Throttle .210 

J 

Jacket Bands 


K 


128 














































LOCOMOTIVE PARTS 


237 


L 

Link .105 Link Block Pin .107 

Link Block .108 Link Hanger .111 

Lower Rail of Frame .145 

M 

Main Crank Pin .252 Main Rod .. .. 92 

Main Frame .155 Main Rod Connection ....154 

Main Reservoir Connec- Main Rod Front Strap.... 93 
tion to Air Gauge.249 

N 

Netting . 26 Nozzle Tip . 32 

Nozzle Stand . 31 Number Plate . 17 


Oil Can Shelf 
Oil Pipe Plug 


0 

225 Oil Pipe 


123 

40 


Pedestal Brace ..146 

Pilot . 1 

Pilot Bracket . 8 

Pilot Brace .254 

Piston Head . 61 

Piston Packing . 59 


Piston Packing Rings .... 62 
Quadrant . 


Piston Rod . 60 

Primer .184 

Pump Connections . 100 


Pump Exhaust Connection.175 
Pump Piston Packing ....174 
Pump Steam Connection. . 176 
Pump Valve Case .178 

.220 


R 

Radial Stay Bolts.188 Rocker . 

Reach Rod .118 Rocker Box .... 

Relief Valve . 45 Rod Bush . 

Reverse Lever .217 Rocking Grates . 

Running Board . 

S 

Safety Hanger .85 Sand Box Lever 

Safety Valves .201 Sand Lever .... 

Sand Box.... * „. „, „. 134 Sand Pipe . 


116 

11 7 
153 

165 

168 


135 
216 

136 












































238 


LOCOMOTIVE PARTS 


Shake Lever Stub. 

...227 


Stand Pipe . 


Sight Feed Lubricator.. 

. ..224 


Stay Bolts . 


Signal Lamp . 



Steam Chest . 

... 44 

Signal Pipe . 

••-233 


Steam Chest Casing Cover. 42 

Signal Pipe Hose. 

...234 


Steam Chest Cover . .. . 

• • • 43 

Signal Whistle . 

...213 


Steam Cylinder Bra 

k e 

Slide or Parallel Rod. .. 

••.152 


Pump . 

...170 

Sling Stay . 

,..i8q 


Steam Gauge . 

...208 

Smoke Arch Door. 

...18 


Steam Pipe . 

...182 

Smoke Arch Front . 

.. . 19 


Steam Pipe ( 2 ) . 

■■■33 

Smoke Arch Ring . 

, . . 20 


Steam Ports . 

...56 

Smoke Stack . 

...38 


Steam Turret . 

...209 

Stack Base . 

• 37 


Steam Valve . 

•••183 

Suspension Stud . 


T 

1 


Tail Piece of Frame..., 

••-238 

Train Pipe Hose . 

••-232 

Throttle Bell Crank. 

...196 


Train Line Connection 

to 

Throttle Lever . 

...215 


Air Gauge . 

. .‘.250 

Throttle Pipe ... 

...194 


Truck Brake . 

.. . 86 

Throttle Stem . 

...197 


Truck Brake Cut-out Cock.245 

Throttle Valve . 

...195 


Truck Center Casting . 

...63 

Train Pipe . 

...103 


T. or Nigger Head. 

•••34 

Train Pipe . 

••-231 


Tumbling Shaft . 

• • .113 

Train Pipe Connection from 


'Fumbling Shaft Arm . 

.. .112 

Main Reservoir . 

...101 

V 

Tumbling Shaft Lever . 

. . .114 

Valve Seat . 

• 52 

Valve Stem Packing . .. 

•••50 

Valve Steam . 

■••49 


Valve Stem Rod . 

...102 

Valve Stem Connection. 

... 51 


Valve Yoke . 

... 48 

Ventilator . 






W 



Wash-out Plugs . 

...104 


Wedge Bolt . 

...I49 

Water Pipe . 

...t8i 


Wheel Guard . 

...87 

Water Valve . 

...185 


Whistle Rig . 

• .203 

Whistle Signal Valve . 





























































.... 


.......... 


... . 


Ww 















































































































































































APPENDIXES 



Modbrn Transportation. 






V 


APPENDIXES 


RECENT PROGRESS IN AIR-BRAKE PRACTICE. 

The extreme importance of the air-brake as an essen¬ 
tial of up-to-date railroad equipment, and the necessity 
for a perfect understanding of its principles and work¬ 
ing as a guarantee of efficiency on the part of trainmen, 
lend special interest to the following extracts from a pa¬ 
per on “Recent Progress in Air-Brake Art” read by 
Mr. Robert Burgess before the S. & S. W. Railway Club. 

“It has been stated by a prominent authority, and cor¬ 
rectly so, that the development and advancement of heav¬ 
ier equipment, higher speed, and quick service, on both 
steam and electrically operated railroads, are restricted 
to the capacity of power brakes to stop the moving train. 
* * * The progress made in recent years on American 
railroads has been remarkable, but not a single step 1 for¬ 
ward in the direction of handling trains at higher speed 
or of heavier tonnage has been made without first con¬ 
sidering the possibility of stopping them in a reasonably 
safe distance in case of need. * * * 

“During the last ten years a general movement has ta- 
en place amonge the operating officials to increase the 
tonnage hauled per locomotive. The economies re¬ 
sulting from such a practice are too apparent to require 
any statement from me, but it was this increase in ton¬ 
nage that required the next advance in the air-brake 
work. * * * 

“As long as trains were of moderate length, and loco¬ 
motives of moderate weight, everything went smoothly 


241 



242 


RECENT AIR-BRAKE PRACTICE 


and no air-brake troubles of a serious nature were en¬ 
countered. But, when the big locomotives, ‘Battleships/ 
came, the air-brake man’s troubles commenced. Trains 
parted, freight was damaged, drivers flattended, or tires 
overheated and delays to trains from any one, or all of 
these causes, made his life one continual round of pleas¬ 
ure. 

# 

“The first move in the construction of the brake appara¬ 
tus to eliminate these troubles, and to provide means 
of independently operating the brakes on the locomotive, 
was the application of the combined straight-air and auto¬ 
matic brake. That this was a move in the right direc¬ 
tion is shown by the fact that while it was only used ex¬ 
perimentally in 1900, and put on the market commer¬ 
cially in February, 1901, on August, 1905, four and one- 
half years later, 5,292 locomotives were equipped with 
this device. * * * 

“The combined straight-air and automatic brake was 
very satisfactory so far as it went, but it left many other 
features to be desired. Among these were, the means of 
enabling the enginemajn to operate the locomotive brakes 
independently of, or in conjunction with, the train brakes, 
at any or all times; the continually increasing number of 
parts and amount of space required; and the fact that loss 
of brake-cylinder pressure, either from long piston travel 
or leakage, was not maintained. * * * 

“It will be of interest, before we go farther, to enu¬ 
merate briefly the most important points that were en¬ 
deavored to be incorporated in the new equipment. 
These are as follows: 

“1. To permit the engineman to release or apply the 
brakes on the engine and tender, either partially or wholly, 
absolutely independent of those on the train. 


RECENT AIR-BRAKE PRACTICE 


243 


“2. To permit the engineman to apply or release the 
engine or tender brakes in conjunction with the train 
brakes when desired. 

“3. To permit the engine and train brakes to be ap¬ 
plied automatically either by the conductor or the opera¬ 
tion of one brake valve by the engineman. 

“4. To permit the engineman to release the train 
brakes, but hold the engine brakes applied, and maintain¬ 
ing the brake-cylinder pressure during such release with¬ 
out requiring him to operate more than one brake-valve 
handle to accomplish this. 

“5. To insure the engineman’s holding the engine 
brakes applied while releasing the train brakes unless he 
wilfully and intentionally releases them; also without 
operating more than one brake-valve handle. 

6. To permit the engineman to graduate the re¬ 
lease of the engine brakes after the train brakes have 
been released, thus allowing the slack to run out grad¬ 
ually. 

“y. To permit the engineman to release the driver 
brakes at any time and under any condition, without in 
any way interfering with the operation of the train 
brakes. 

“8. To permit the engineman to prevent the appli¬ 
cation of the engine brakes when desired,, as in descend¬ 
ing long grades, but also place in his hands a means of 
applying them while recharging the train. 

“9. To permit the second engineman, when double¬ 
heading, to control the brakes of his engine, without in 
any way interfering with the operation of any other 
brakes in the train. 

‘To. To permit the engineman to recharge the train 


244 


RECENT AIR-BRAKE PRACTICE 


fully while holding the engine brakes applied, as in stand¬ 
ing on a grade. 

“n. To prevent the engineman from inadvertently 
leaving the brake-valve handle on lap and allowing leak¬ 
age to deplete the train pipe and auxiliary reservoirs. 

“12. To obtain and maintain a definite brake-cylinder 
pressure in the engine-brake cylinders, irrespective of 
packing-leather leakage or piston travel. 

“13. To reduce the number of parts, and use as little 
space as might be practicable. 

“14. To make all parts so that any or all defective 
parts could be removed without breaking any pipe joints. 

“The foregoing comprises the most important features, 
though there are many minor ones omitted. * * * 

“The apparatus just described (quick action triple) was 
devised to permit of the smoother handling of freight 
trains, as was previously explained, and as far as can now 
be seen, will satisfactorily take care of the locomotive 
brake problem. The whole problem of stopping trains, 
however, includes more than the locomotive, and the in¬ 
crease in the length and tonnage of trains also demanded 
more of the car brakes. At the time of the advent of 
the quick-action triple, 50-car trains were considered as 
the limit of length, but to-day 80-car trains are com¬ 
mon, and 100-car trains are quite usual on some roads. 
The troubles encountered in handling long trains with 
the present form of brake, were lack of uniformity of 
application, and the release of the head brakes much in 
advance of those in the rear. With a heavy reduction, say 
fifteen pounds, in trainpipe pressure, there would be an 
interval of nine or ten seconds between the movement 
of the first brake piston and the movement of the 
fiftieth brake piston. During this interval, the head 


RECENT AIR-BRAKE PRACTICE 


245 


brake would -be holding with about thirty-five pounds’ 
pressure. T he rear car would have only about eighteen 
pounds’ pressure when the reduction was completed. In 
the release, the head brake would be fully released long 
before the last triple valve would move to release posi¬ 
tion. Worse still, it was found practically impossible to 
apply all brakes with a service application on a train of 
eighty or one hundred cars. This was aggravated by 
the use of ten-inch brake cylinders on heavy freight- 
cars. * * * 

“To overcome these troubles a new triple valve was 
designed, designated as the ‘K’ triple valve. This valve is 
an improved quick-action triple valve, and outwardly 
looks very much like all others, the only difference being 
a rib cast on the top of the valve body. It operates on 
exactly the same principle as former valves, and will in¬ 
terchange with them, the only change being in the piston 
bushing, slide valve, slide-valve bushing, graduating 
valve, and the retarded release stirrup. 

“It will be seen from the foregoing that at each train- 
pipe reduction, each ‘K’ triple valve allows a small amount 
of air from the trainpipe to pass to the brake cylinders. 
This might possibly be termed a modified form of quick- 
action application. The object in doing this is to make 
' certain the service application of the brakes, to quicken 
it, and also obtain an actual braking pressure with light 
reductions. The result is that where there is an interval 
of nine or ten seconds between the movements of the first 
and fiftieth brake pistons with the older valve, the interval 

is only four and one-half seconds with the ‘K’ valve. 

• # 

With the older valve, a ten-pound reduction will give 
little or no actual braking pressure on the rear car, with 
the ‘K’ valve it will give approximately eighteen or 


246 


RECENT AIR-BRAKE PRACTICE 


twenty pounds. With the older valve, it is practicaJly 
impossible to set all the brakes on a ioo-car train, with 
a service application of even fifteen or twenty pounds. 
With the ‘K’ valve, every brake will set with even a five- 
pound reduction. The ‘K’ valve will give the same re¬ 
tarding effect with a reduction of about six pounds, that 
the older valves will with a reduction of twenty pounds. 

“Another improvement is found in the release. When 
releasing brakes on a long train, the main reservoir is 
placed in direct communication with the trainpipe. This 
latter may be half a mile or a mile long and have numer¬ 
ous right-angle turns. The result is that the rise in 
a high trainpipe pressure against them are forced to the 
and much in excess of that at the rear. At the rear end 
the rise is always slow; and there is never, on a long 
train, more than one or two pounds’ difference in the 
trainpipe and auxiliary reservoir pressure. With the 
older brakes the triple valves on the head cars move to 
release at once, and commence recharging their auxiliary 
reservoirs, thus taking away air that should go to the rear 
to release the brakes there. With proper main reservoir 
pressure and volume, and the brake-valve handle in full 
release, there may be as high as twenty pounds’ difference 
in the trainpipe pressure at the head and rear of the train 
a moment after movement to release. Advantage is taken 
of this in the ‘K’ valve, and a new position of the triple 
valve known as ‘retarded release' is added. When the 
release is made, the valves at the head of the train having 
a high trainpipe pressure againstt them are forced to the 
extreme position. The piston compresses the spring and 
forms an air-tight joint against the end of the side-valve 
bushing. At this time the graduating and slide valves 
have closed all ports leading into the brake cylinder, and 


RECENT AIR-BRAKE PRACTICE 


247 


the slide valve has only partially opened the exhaust port 
so as to retard the' release of the head brakes. No air can 
pass to the auxiliary reservoir through the ordinary 
feed groove, and the only air that can go to the auxiliary 
reservoir must pass through the chamber and ports, hence 
the recharge is retarded as well as the release on the head 
end, leaving that much more air to effect a release on 
the rear end. The result is that the brakes on the rear 
end will release slightly in advance of those on the head 
end, thus avoiding a jerk. The reservoirs throughout the 
train also charge more uniformly, thus insuring the appli¬ 
cation of all the brakes on the next reduction. They 
also charge in a much less time than the older triple 
valves, on account of charging uniformly and not wasting 
air by overcharging the head end. As the air is equalized 
throughout the trainpipe, the pressure at the head end 
through recharging the rear cars reduces to an amount 
nearly equal to that in the auxiliary reservoir, when a 
spring reacts, sending the piston to the full release posi¬ 
tion, in which the feed groove is opened. 

“This retarded release and recharge occurs from the 
head car back about twenty-five cars, after which there is 
not sufficient difference in trainpipe and auxiliary reser- 
' voir pressure to compress the spring, and the valves at the 
rear only move to the normal release position. Through 
this action of the valve, the release of the head brakes 
is so retarded as to do away with serious jerks, and the 
overcharge of the head auxiliary reservoirs is almost en¬ 
tirely avoided. 

“The action of the valve in an emergency application 
is identical with that of the former valves. Air is sent 
from the auxiliary reservoir past the end of the slide 
valve to actuate the emergency piston as formerly, while 


248 


RECENT AIR-BRAKE PRACTICE 


another port sends pressure to the brake cylinder from 
the auxiliary reservoir. * * * 

“The question of interchange of cars having valves of 
this type, and the operation of the brakes in a train where 
all types of triples are indiscriminately mixed, is an im¬ 
portant one, and must be given full and careful consider¬ 
ation. It is safe to say that the action of the brakes in 
a train will be improved by the introduction of a few of 
these new valves, the improvement being directly in pro¬ 
portion to the number of *K’ valves in service. Mention 
was made that with the older form of valves it was prac¬ 
tically impossible to apply all of the brakes in a ioo-car 
train with a service application. If, however, a few ‘K’ 
valves are applied to the cars placed near the middle or 
rear of the train, every brake can be applied. The greater 
the number of these valves is, the more uniform will be 
the brake application. If one or two ‘K’ triple valves 
are at the head end of the train, the release of the brakes 
on those individual cars will be retarded, as will the re¬ 
charge of their auxiliary reservoirs, though the release 
on the other cars will not be altered a particle. The 
more of these valves there are at the head end, therefore, 
the better will be the results obtained when a release is 
made. One or two at the head end will not do much 
good, except in the way of quickening the application, 
and all of the advantages of the new valve cannot be ex¬ 
pected if only a limited number are used. * * * 

“The older forms of valves, commonly known as the 
‘F-36’ and ‘H-49,’ can easily be converted to the ‘K’ type 
when sent to the manufacturer for repairs. To do this 
necessitates the use of a new piston, a new slide-valve 
bushing, slide valve, graduating valve, and the addition 
of the retarded release spring, post, and stirrup. 


RECENT AIR-BRAKE PRACTICE 


249 


'The fear has been expressed that the introduction of 
the quick-service triple valve might lead to an increase in 
undesired quick-action applications. This fear is un¬ 
founded, however, as the actual result should be a de¬ 
crease of these applications rather than an increase. 
The cause of undesired quick-action is the fact that the 
piston and slide valve of the triple valve fail to move 
when the first reduction is made. As explained, the 
flow of air through a long trainpipe must of necessity 
be slow, either in application or release. . This reduction 
in conjunction with excessive friction, may be so slow 
that the valves will not respond, and on the second re¬ 
duction quick-action may follow. With the quick-service, 
or TC valve, each valve assists in maintaining a uniform 
speed of reduction,, thereby assisting in causing the move¬ 
ment of any valve or valves that might fail to respond 
under the former conditions. 

“It will doubtless be of interest, in conclusion, to state 
briefly the results obtained with this new equipment in 
some brake trials at West Seneca, N. Y., in August, 
1905, and since duplicated on the Santa Fe and Northern 
Pacific. The locomotive was a consolidation, weighing 
173,000 pounds on drivers. The train consisted of fifty 
empty steel underframe cars, each weighing 45,000 
pounds. All cars were equipped with ten-inch brake 
cylinders, and the only change in the equipment made 
during the test was from the ‘H-49’ to the ‘K-2’ triple 
valve, or vice versa. 

“With the ‘H-49’ triple valves, a service reduction of 
twenty pounds stopped the train in about 584 feet from 
a speed of twenty-two miles per hour. With the ‘K-2’ 
triple valves a five-pound service reduction stopped the 
train in 446 feet from a speed of twenty-two miles per 


250 


RECENT AIR-BRAKE PRACTICE 


hour. Broadly speaking, therefore, a five-pound service 
reduction will stop a train in- the distance required to 
stop with a twenty-pound reduction with the older forms 
of valves. As a matter of comparison, a five-pound re¬ 
duction with the old valves, ‘H-49,’ required 1,283 feet 
in which to stop from a speed of twenty-two miles per 
hour. 

“With a ten-pound reduction the old valves ‘H-49,' 
stopped the train in 757 feet. With ‘H-49’ and ‘K-2‘ 
valves alternating in groups of five throughout the train, 
a ten-pound reduction stopped the train in 503 feet. 
This shows that the two types of valves will operate 
harmoniously, and that the results will be bettered in 
direct proportion to the number of the new valves used. 

“In releasing, the tests were made by slowing the train 
down from a speed of about thirty miles per hour with 
a brake application, the brakes released at low speed, and 
the engine throttle opened at once and kept wide open 
to keep the train in motion. With the ‘H-49’ valves the 
drawbar pull under these conditions was 169,000 pounds. 
With the ‘K-2’ valves the drawbar pull was 34,000 
pounds. The release in each case was made at a speed 
between twelve and fifteen miles per hour. The great 
difference in the drawbar pull is due to the inertia of the 
head end of the train with the ‘H~49’ triple valves causing 
this strain while the brakes at the rear were still applied. 
With the new valves a large portion of the drawbar pull 
is due to the tractive power of the locomotive.” 


RECENT AIR-BRAKE PRACTICE 


251 


NEW YORK B2-HS EQUIPMENT. 

A highly efficient type of air-brake is that known as 
the New York “B2-HS,” a double-pressure system with 
high-speed attachment. This equipment differs mater¬ 
ially from all previous types. The independent brake 
valve is dispensed with, as in the “Combined Automatic 
and Straight Air-Brake,” and a Duplex Pressure Control¬ 
ler and Accelerator Valve have been added. 

With the B2-HS device, the train brakes can be re¬ 
leased and the locomotive brakes held on. The loco¬ 
motive brakes can then be released when desired, or can 
be applied and released independently of the train brakes, 
or together with same at the option of the engineer. 

The locomotive brakes can be operated at all times by 
automatic or independent application and without regard 
to position of the locomotive in a train, whether used as 
a helper, coupled to another, or assigned to any other part 
of train. They can be-applied and released at will, and 
can be graduated off after an application of the train 
brakes; therefore, in all kinds of service the train brakes 
can be handled without shock to the train. .The Accele¬ 
rator Valve is a valuable addition, for by the use of same, 
shorter stops can be effected and a more uniform appli¬ 
cation of train brakes obtained. 

All excess pressure is confined to the main reservoir, 
and in no position of the brake-valve handle can the 
brake-pipe pressure increase above its maximum. This 
will prevent overcharging of auxiliary reservoirs on the 
head end of trains, and also reduce the strain on air¬ 
brake hose. 


252 


NEW YORK B2-HS EQUIPMENT 



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NEW YORK B2-HS EQUIPMENT 


253 


MANIPULATION. 

The instructions for manipulating the B2-HS equip¬ 
ment are as follows: 

To apply the locomotive and train brakes, move the 
handle of the brake valve to the graduating notch neces¬ 
sary to make the required brake-pipe reduction. 

To release both locomotive and train brakes, move the 
handle to Running and Straight-Air release position. 

To release the train brakes and hold the locomotive 
brakes set, move the handle to Full Automatic Release 
and Straight-Air Application position. 

To release the locomotive brakes, move the handle to 
Running and Straight-Air Release position. 

To apply the locomotive brakes, move the handle to 
Full Automatic Release and Straight-Air Application 
position. 

To apply the brakes in an emergency, move the handle 
quickly to Emergency position, and leave it there until 
the train stops or the danger has passed. 

In case the automatic brakes are applied by a bursted 
hose, the train parts, or a conductor’s valve is opened, 
place the handle in Lap position, to retain the main res¬ 
ervoir pressure. 

To graduate off or entirely release the locomotive 
brakes after an application of the train brakes, use the 
lever safety valve to make the required reduction. 

The handle of the brake valve will be found to work 
free and easy at all times, as the pressure on the main 
slide valve does not exceed the maximum brake-pipe 
pressure. 

The cylinder gauge will show at all times the pres¬ 
sure in the locomotive brake cylinders, and should be 
observed in all brake manipulation. 


254 


NEW YORK B2-HS EQUIPMENT 


Where there are two or more locomotives in a train, 
cut-out cock No. I (see Piping Diagram, Fig. i) should 
be turned to close the brake pipe, and the brake-valve 
handle should be carried in Running and Straight-Air 
Release position. 

In case it becomes necessary to cut out the straight 
air brake, close cut-out cock No. 3 which is located in 
the straight air pipe between the brake valve and the 
reducing valve. 

To cut out the automatic brake, close cut-out cock 
No. 6 located in the pipe connecting the triple valve 
with the double check valve. 

By locating the cut-out cock between the triple and 
double check valves, the auxiliary reservoirs will remain 
charged, while the brake is cut out and can be alternated 
with the train brakes in descending long grades, to pre¬ 
vent overheating of the locomotive tires. 

Cut-out cocks Nos. 3 and 6 are special; they are of the 
three-way pattern, and, when turned off, drain the pipes 
leading to the double check valve, to keep the latter seated 
in the direction of the closed cock. 

' MECHANICAL DETAILS. 

Fig. 1 shows a piping diagram of the B2-HS equip¬ 
ment. 

/ 

Air compressed by the pump passes as usual to the 
main reservoir, and through the main reservoir pipe to 
the controller. 

The main reservoir cut-out cock No. 4, is to cut off 
the supply of air when removing any of the apparatus 
except the governor. 

The regulating tops of the pump governor receive 
their pressure from the main reservoir, as shown, which 


NEW YORK B2-HS EQUIPMENT 


255 


pipe also extends to duplex gauge (main reservoir pres¬ 
sure) . 

Between the brake valve and controller valve, con¬ 
nections is made for the regulating tops of the control¬ 
ler ; this pipe leads to the three-way cock as shown. 
The connecting of the regulating tops to a three-way 
cock is also used with the pump governor. When the 
handles of the three-way cocks are in the position shown, 
the low-pressure regulating tops are effective. When the 
handles are turned to their reverse position, the low regu¬ 
lating tops will be cut out, and the high ones cut in. 
These cocks may be turned to the position desired, and 
the adjustment of the regulating tops changed to suit 
the service in which the locomotive is working. 

The brake valve has five connections; one leads to 
small compartment of divided reservoir; one to the large 
compartment; one to the controller and main reservoir; 
one to the brake pipe; and one to the locomotive brake 
cylinder. 

To name the pipes leading to divided reservoir, the 
one leading to large compartment is called the “Acceler¬ 
ator Valve” pipe, and the one to the small compartment, 
“Brake Valve Reservoir" pipe. 

The straight air pipe leads to the Reducing Valve and 
double check valve, as shown, where connection is made 
to the brake cylinders. 

The high-speed controller valve connects to the double 
check valve and brake cylinders through an extension of 
the brake-cylinder pipe. A gauge pipe leads from this 
to the single pointer gauge which indicates at all times the 
pressure in the locomotive brake cylinders; another con¬ 
nection leads from the high-speed controller valve to the 
brake pipe below double heading cock No. I in the brake 


256 


NEW YORK B2-HS EQUIPMENT 


pipe, as shown; connection is also made at this point with 
the duplex gauge (brake-pipe pressure). This is done 
so that at all times brake-pipe pressure will be present 
in the high-speed controller, and to show brake-pipe 
pressure on the duplex gauge. A branch pipe leads 
from the brake pipe to the accelerator valve as shown. 

Cut-out cocks Nos. 5, 6 and 7 are recommended with 
this equipment, their purpose being fully understood. 



Fig. 2. B-2 Brake Valve. 


Nos. 9 and 10 can be added, if desired, so that the driv¬ 
er brake cylinders and reservoir can be cut out and en- 
gitie truck brake operated by truck brake reservoir. If 
desired, cut-out cock No. 8 can be substituted for cock 
No. 6. With this arrangement the brake cylinders can 
be cut out and the auxiliary reservoirs on the locomotive 
will remain charged. 



NEW YORK B2-HS EQUIPMENT 


257 


A triplex gauge is furnished with this equipment if 
desired, which embodies the two gauges in one case, with 
the pointers on a single dial. 



THE B-2 BRAKE VALVE. 

This valve embodies the features of the duplex con¬ 
troller valve and the united straight air. It is illustrated 
in full detail in Figs. 2 to 7. 

The main reservoir pipe is connected from the con¬ 
troller valve to chamber B (Fig. 3) in the top of the 
valve. The brake pipe is connected to chamber A. 
Discharge of brake-pipe air to the atmosphere for ser¬ 
vice applications, occurs through ports F and G in the 



















































































258 


NEW YORK B2-HS EQUIPMENT 


main slide valve and exhaust passage C in the slide-valve 
seat, and for emergency applications through ports J 
and K in the slide valve and exhaust passage C. (See 
Figs. 3 and 7). The main slide valve also controls the 
flow of air from the main reservoir into the brake pipe. 
In Full Automatic Release position, air is free to pass 
from the main reservoir to the brake pipe through ports 
M, and also around the slide valve, as in this position, 
the slide valve is moved forward uncovering a portion 



of the passage. When the handle is in Running posi¬ 
tion, only ports M are open, but they are of a size to 
release all train brakes promptly. Small slide valve EV 
110 is a cut-off or graduating .valve, operated by piston 
EV 193, and lever EV 112. In service applications it 
automatically laps port F, and stops the discharge of 
brake-pipe air when the brake-pipe reduction, corre¬ 
sponding to the service graduation notch in which the 
handle is placed, has been made. Piston EV 193, which 
is exposed on one side to brake-pipe pressure (chamber 
A) and on the other to champer D and supplementary 
reservoir pressure (small compartment, Fig. 11), through 
the agency of the lever EV 112, causes valve EV no to 
move automatically whatever distance is necessary to 




































NEW YORK B2-HS EQUIPMENT 


259 



Fig. 5. 


Fig. 6. 


close port F. Passage H (Figs. 3 and 5) runs length¬ 
wise of the valve, one end leading to the supplementary 
reservoir, as indicated in Fig. 3, while the other end 
leads to the space D, back of the piston EV 193. In 
Full Automatic Release and in Running and Straight-Air 
Release positions, air from chamber B, Fig. 4, passes 
through port W to passage H, thence through passage 
Ii to the supplementary reservoir, until there is equal 
pressure on both sides of the piston EV 193, and the 

































































































































260 


NEW YORK B2-HS EQUIPMENT 


supplementary reservoir pressure is equal to the brake- 
pipe pressure. Port 0 *(Fig. 3), which is used to return 
the piston EV 193 to its normal position when releasing, 
is open to the exhaust passage C when the brake-valve 
handle is in Full Automatic Release, Running, and Lap 
positions, and closes just before the handle is brought 
to the first graduating notch. During the time the 
brake-valve handle is in the above position, port O is 
open through passage C to the atmosphere, as before 
stated; and if it were not for the vent valve EV 180, 
the function of piston EV 193 would be destroyed, as 
a continual flow from chamber D would result while the 
handle was in these positions. 

When the piston EV 193 is in operation, the vent 
valve EV 180 is away from its seat, thus opening port 
O to the slide-valve seat, to be opened when the brake- 
valve handle is again returned. 

Connection is made with the straight-air pipe through 
passage L (Fig. 4), to which ports E and V connect 
from the main slide-valve seat. Port E is the admis¬ 
sion port, and is open to receive pressure from cham¬ 
ber B when the brake-valve handle is in Full Automatic 
Release and Straight-Air Application position. Port 
V is used to exhaust the pressure, and is open to the 
exhaust passage C through ports R and J in the main 
slide valve when the handle is in Running and Straight- 
Air Release position. This port is also used to pass 
pressure from chamber B to the straight-air pipe,, when 
the brake-valve handle is in the fifth graduating notch 
or Emergency position; and should there be cylinder 
leakage or excessive piston travel, the straight-air brake 
will hold the pressure in these cylinders to the adjust¬ 
ment of the reducing valve. 


NEW YORK B2-HS EQUIPMENT 


261 


In all graduating positions of the brake-valve, brake- 
pipe pressure is admtited to the divided reservoir (large 
compartment, Fig. n), to operate the accelerator valve. 
When the brake-valve handle is moved to any of the 
graduating notches, brake-pipe pressure will flow through 
port S, passage X, and cavity AC in the main slide valve 
(Fig. 7) and through port T and passage Y in the valve 
body (Fig. 4), to the divided reservoir, until the port S 


FACE OF SLIDE VALVE 



Fig. 7. 


is cut off by the graduating valve EV no, when the 
latter closes the service port F. To guard against pos¬ 
sibility of the accelerator valve being open while the 
brake-valve handle is in Release position, which might 
occur if the handle were returned before a service appli¬ 
cation had been completed, port J in the main slide valve 
(Fig. 7) has been enlarged so as to open port T to the 
exhaust passage C and the atmosphere when the handle 
is in either of the positions mentioned. These ports are 
large enough to discharge rapidly the air accumulated in 
the divided reservoir, and thereby permit the accelerator 
valve to close. 

To dismantle the valve, the valve cover EV 195 should 
first be removed, and then the back cap EV 191. The 
main slide valve EV 194 should be taken off, and the 
graduating valve EV no lifted out ; also the graduating 















262 


NEW YORK B2-HS EQUIPMENT 


valve spring EV in. Next remove the fulcrum pin 
EV 113, after which remove the piston EV 193. 

Do not attempt to remove the follower cap nut EV 
181 from the piston EV 193 while the piston is in the 
valve body, as to do this would probably result either 
in springing the groove in the piston stem, or in break¬ 
ing off the dowel pin in the valve body. 

Figs. 3, 4, 5 and 6 show the different parts of the valve, 
their names being as follows: EV 60, Small union nut; 
EV 62, Small union ell; EV 69, Handle spring; EV 75, 
Handle pin; EV 77, Handle set screw; EV 95, Lever 
shaft pin with cotter; EV 96, y\-\nch. plug; EV 103, End 
plug; EV 105-A, Follower; EV 107, Packing leather; 
EV 108, Expander; EV no, Graduating valve; EV 
hi, Graduating valve spring; EV 112, Graduating valve 
lever; EV 113, Fulcrum pin; EV 116-A, Link; EV 117- 
A, Link pin; EV 118, Slide valve lever; EV 120, Lever 
shaft; EV 121, Lever shaft packing; EV 123, Handle; 
EV 128, Small union stud; EV 129, Cover screw; EV 
130, Quadrant screw; EV 158, Small union swivel; EV 
159, Cover gasket; EV 172, Latch; EV 173, Latch screw; 
EV 175,, Link pin cotter; EV 180, Vent valve; EV 181, 
Follower cap nut; EV 182, vent valve spring; EV 183, 
Piston cotter; EV 190, Body; EV 191 Back cap; EV 192, 
Cap gasket; EV 193, Piston; EV 194, Main slide valve; 
EV 195, Valve cover ; EV 196, Lever shaft plug; EV 198, 
Quadrant; EV 199, Back cap stud and nut; QT 3, Piston 
ring; QT 29, i-inch Union nut; QT 30, i-inch Union 
swivel; QT 31, i-inch Union gasket. 


,NEW YORK B2-HS EQUIPMENT 263 

DUPLEX PRESSURE-CONTROLLER AND 
DOUBLE-PRESSURE SYSTEM. 

This valve is in reality a part of the brake valve, taking 
place of the excess pressure or feed valve and is connected 
in the main reservoir pipe near the brake valve to control 
the brake-pipe pressure. The controller is in principle 
the same as that of a Duplex pump governor, with the 
exception of the regulating tops, which connect to the 
brake pipe. In no position of the brake-valve handle is 
there danger of the brake pipe becoming overcharged or 
equal to that in the main reservoir. 

This equipment is designed so that two pressures may 
be carried in the brake pipe and also in the main reservoir 
It will be seen, by reference to the piping diagram, that 
there is a union three-way cock from which pipes lead 
to the regulating tops and supply, which in this case is 
brake-pipe pressure. The same arrangement also applies 
to the pump governor. A sectional view of this cock is 
shown in Fig. 9. When one regulating top is cut in, the 
other one is cut out, and vice versa. This is done to re¬ 
lieve the strain on the regulating tops when not working. 
When the cocks are in the position shown in the piping 
diagram, the low-pressure regulating tops of the con¬ 
troller and Duplex pump governor are cut in, giving a 
pressure of 70 pounds to the brake pipe and 90 pounds 
to the main reservoir. When the cocks are reversed, no 
pounds will then be carried in the brake pipe and 130 
pounds in the main reservoir. Fig. 8 is a .view of the 
regulating tops which regulate the brake-pipe pressure, 
one of which is shown in section. They are detached 
from the supply position, and are to be fastened by means 
of the bracket to some convenient place in the cab. Fig. 


264 


NEW YORK B2-HS EQUIPMENT 


io is a section through the supply portion, showing the 
control valve and piston. 

Connection with the main reservoir pipe is made at 
MR, Fig. io; and by means of the cored passage, pres¬ 
sure is free to pass to the under side of the valve PG 95 - 



Fig. 8. 



FIG. 9 . 


Connection BV leads to the brake valve, main reservoir 
connection, Fig. 6. The regulating tops have a connec¬ 
tion D, which, by suitable piping, connects with the 
supply portion of the controller at D, to regulate the 
latter. Port C, Fig. 8, connects space E and connecting 
pipe to the atmosphere, to discharge the pressure above 
the piston PG 4. when the regulating tops are closed, to 
allow the valve PG 95 to be raised by the main reservoir 
pressure, and the same to pass to the brake valve as 
shown. Port B is made larger than post C, in order that 
the connecting pipe and space E will have sufficient pres¬ 
sure to properly operate the piston PG 4 when the latter 
is in operation. Port X connects the under side of the 
piston PG 4 with the atmosphere, so that it will be free 





















































NEW YORK B2-HS EQUIPMENT 


265 


to operate and to discharge any leakage by the piston or 
valve PG 95. 

The adjustment of the controller is accomplished by 
means of the regulating nut PG 35 (Fig. 8), which 
regulates the tension of spring PG 10 against the dia- 
phram PG 13. During the time the tension of the spring 
against the diaphram is stronger than the force exerted 
against it by brake-pipe pressure, the diaphragm will 
remain seated as shown, closing port B, whereupon the 
pressure above the piston PG 4 (Fig 10) will escape to 
the atmosphere through port C (Fig 8), allowing the 




pg 

PG 

PG 

PG 

PG 

PG 

SA 

SA 


Fig. 10. 


valve PG 95 to be raised by main reservoir pressure, and 
the same to pass to the brake pipe. As soon as the pres¬ 
sure against the diaphragm is strong enough to over¬ 
come the resistance of the spring, the diaphragm will be 
moved from its seat, opening port B for pressure to pass 
to the piston PG 4, and shut off communication from 
the main reservoir to the brake pipe. 



































































266 


NEW YORK B2-HS EQUIPMENT 


As each regulating top has a vent port C, and to avoid 
unnecessary waste of air, one of these should be plug¬ 
ged with a screw PG 33. 

The hand wheel PG 45 can be used in descending 
grades if desired, to increase the brake-pipe pressure to 
that of the main reservoir. By screwing the wheel up, 
it will lift the valve PG 95 off its seat, and thus allow the 
two pressures to become equal. The controller will then 
be inoperative, and main reservoir pressure will be free 
to pass to the brake pipe until the controller is again re¬ 
stored to its operative condition. 

The names of parts of the regulating portion are: PG 
3A, Spring Casing; PG 10, Regulating Spring; PG 12A 
and B, Diaphragm button; PG 13, Diaphragm; PG 14, 
Air-valve seat; PG 32, Diaphragm body; PG 33, Vent 
plug; PG 34, Cap; PG 35, Regulating nut; PG 36, Air 
union swivel (2'6-inch copper pipe) ; PG 37, Air union 
nut; PG 98, Duplex bracket; EV 60, Small union nut; 
EV 128, Small union stud ; EV 158, Small union swivel 
( 24 -inch copper pipe). The parts of the three-way cock 
are: SC 57, Washer; SC 58, Nut; SC 129, Body; SC 130, 
Plug; E\ /T 60, Small union nut; EV 158, Union swivel 
( 24 -inch copper pipe). 

The parts of the supply portion shown in Fig. 10 are: 
PG 4, Piston; PG 6A, Valve guide; PG 24, Piston ring; 
PG 45, Hand wheel; PG 46, Lifting stem; PG 48, Body; 
PG 49, Cap; PG 94, Guide; PG 95, Valve; PG 99, \]/\- 
inch union nut; PG 100, ip^-inch union. swivel ; EV 60, 
Small union nut; EV 128, Small union stud; EV 158, 
Union swivel (^ 4 -inch copper pipe) ; SA 6, Leather seat; 
SA 39, Valve stem nut; AV 28, Hand wheel nut. 


NEW YORK B2-HS EQUIPMENT 


267 


ACCELERATOR VALVE. 

This valve is designed to assist the brake valve in 
discharging brake-pipe pressure when making service 
stops on long trains, to bring about a more uniform ap¬ 
plication of the brakes and to apply them more promptly 
than heretofore. 



NAMES OF PARTS 

EV 158—Union swivel. 

EV 197—Divided reservoir. 

RV 134—One-half inch stud and nut. 

EV 200—Bottom plug. 

The v&lve is perfectly automatic in its operation, be¬ 
ing governed entirely by the volume of air in the brake 
pipe, operating only when the train is of such a length 
as to warrant the use of same. The operation is similar 
to that of the graduating mechanism in the brake valve, 
opening about four seconds after the brake-valve handle 
has been moved to a graduating notch, and closing in 
about the same length of time after the graduating valve 
has closed. 

A sectional view of the valve is shown in Fig. 12. The 
valve is bolted to the end of the divided reservoir (Fig. 
ii), and receives pressure from same through passage 


EV 60—Small union nut. 
EV 62—Small union ell. 
EV 156-Reservoir plug. 






































268 


NEW YORK B2-HS EQUIPMENT 


Q, which connects to space C above the piston RV 65. 
The brake-pipe connection leads to the slide-valve cham¬ 
ber O. 

Chamber B is open to the atmosphere through port 
T, and in the operation of the valve, will carry off the 



Fig. 12. 


discharge of pressure through port S, and anv leakage 
by the piston RV 65 or valve stem RY 67. 

The slide valve RV 74, when at rest, laps the port b, 
and exhaust, and is held in this position by the spring 
QT 231, through the medium of valve stem RV 67, which 
seats in the manner shown. Port b is triangular, the 
larger portion being at the bottom, and in operation 
brake-pipe pressure is gradually cut off as the slide valve 
closes. To give the slide valve a slow closure, port R 






























































































NEW YORK B2-HS EQUIPMENT 


269 


is provided in the valve body, and port S through the 
piston R\ 65, as shown. When the valve is in opera¬ 
tion and brake-pipe pressure is being discharged to the 
atmosphere through ports a and b, ports R and S are 
open to discharge the pressure above the piston and 
divided reservoir. As soon as the pressure in the divided 
reservoir has reduced sufficiently for the spring QT 231 
to operate, it will move the valve slowly upward until 
the port R is cut off, which then reduces the discharge 
from the reservoir about one-half, giving the slide valve 
the slow closure desired. 

The valve operates when there are eight or more cars 
in a train, and requires from fifteen to seventeen pounds’ 
pressure in the divided reservoir to operate it. Any pres¬ 
sure passing into this reservoir, as with a shorter train 
than eight cars, will be discharged to the atmosphere 
through ports S and T, the slide valve remaining closed. 

The proper names of parts of the valve, shown in Fig. 
12, are as follows: PG 24, Piston ring; RV 62, Body; 
RV 63, Upper cap; RV 64, Lower cap; RV 65, Piston; 
RV 67, Valve stem; RV 68, Slide-valve bush; RV 69, 
valve-stem bush; RV 70, Leather seat; RV 74, Slide 
valve; QT 231, Spring; EV 656, Slide-valve spring. 


STRAIGHT AIR REDUCING VALVE. 

The purpose of this valve is to limit the pressure in 
the driver and truck-brake cylinders to 40 pounds when 
using the straight-air brake. 

Fig. 13 is a section of the reducing valve, showing the 
valves, ports, etc. 

Connection from the brake valve is made to the union 


270 


NEW YORK B2-HS EQUIPMENT 


fitting A; and by means of the passage C, pressure is free 
to pass to the feed valve SA 26. 

Connection B leads to double check valve and brake 
cylinders. 

The adjustment of the valve is accomplished by means 
of regulating nut SA 34, which regulates the tension of 



spring SA 20 against the diaphragm SA 32. During the 
time the tension of the spring against the diaphragm is 
stronger than the force exerted against it by the brake- 
cylinder pressure, valve SA 26 will be held open, where¬ 
upon pressure from the main reservoir will be free to 
pass to the brake cylinders. As soon as the pressure 
against the diaphragm is strong enough to overcome the 
resistance of the spring, the diaphragm will be moved 

























































NEW YORK B2-HS EQUIPMENT 


271 


upward, allowing the feed valve SA 26 to be closed by 
the spring SA 28, shutting off communication from the 
supply to the brake cylinders. 

The names of the parts of this valve are as follows: 



SA 19, Regulating stem; SA 20, Regulating spring; 
SA 21 , Diaphragm stem; SA 22, Nut; SA 23, Diaphragm 
washer; SA 24, Body; SA 25, Feed-valve cup nut; SA 
26, Feed valve; SA 28, Feed-valve spring; SA 29, Spring 
box; SA 30, Check nut; SA 31, Diphragm ring; SA 32, 
Diaphragm; SA 33, Diaphragm Shield; SA 34, Regulat¬ 
ing nut; EV 253, 24 -inch Union nut; EV 254, 24 -inch 
Union swivel; EV 255, 24 -inch Union gasket. 


























































272 


NEW YORK B2-HS EQUIPMENT 


HIGH-SPEED CONTROLLER, WITH 
LEVER SAFETY VALVE. 

This valve is operative when the locomotive equipment 
is set for high-speed service. 

Fig. 14 is a section of the high-speed controller, show¬ 
ing the operative parts. 

The safety valve is for use at all times to graduate off 
brake-cylinder pressure after an application of the train 
brakes, when same is desired, and to regulate the pres¬ 
sure in the brake cylinders during high-speed operations. 
It is set at 53 pounds, and should so be adjusted in serv¬ 
ice. 

The high-speed valve, to which the safety valve is fast¬ 
ened, connects with the brake-cylinder pipe at BC and 
with brake pipe at BP. 

The valve PIS 108, with piston HS 107, operates when 
the brake-pipe pressure is less than the pressure in brake 
cylinders. During all ordinary service applications the 
valve HS 108 .will remain in position shown. In an 
emergency application, when brake-pipe pressure is 
greatly reduced, the brake-cylinder pressure will move 
the piston HS 107, and valve, its full traverse to the 
seat C. This movement will restrict passage G leading 
to the safety valve and atmosphere by the circular groove 
in the valve HS 108, being moved forward, closing a 
portion of the passage. This will give a gradual blow 
down from the brake cylinders through passage G, until 
shut off by the safety valve. The valve will remain in 
this position until the brakes are released. 

Ports F and D allow the brake-cylinder pressure 
around the piston HS 107 and back of valve HS 108, so 
that the piston will be free to operate at a slight differ- 






HOLLOW ARCH FOR LOCOMOTIVES 


273 


ence of pressure. The piston HS 107 is provided with 
leather seats, SA 6, which insures a seat at each end of 
its traverse. 

1 he names of the parts of high-speed controller and 
lever safety valve are as follows: RV 103, Regulating 
nut; RV 104, Cap nut; RV 105A, Regulating spring; 
RV 129, Lever handle; RV 130, Lever handle pin, with 
cotter; RV 131, Valve stem; RV 132, Valve seat; RV 
133, Valve; HS 105, Cap ; LIS 106, Base ; HS 107, Piston ; 
HS 108, Piston valve; HS 109, Washer; HS no, Nut; 
HS ii2„ Body; SA 6, Leather seat; DV 8, ^ 4 -inch Union 
nut; DV 9, ^ 4 -inch L T nion swivel; DV 10, * 4 -inch Union 
gasket. 


THE HOLLOW ARCH FOR LOCOMOTIVES. 

Hollow arches, providing passages for the admission 
of heated air to the fire, from above, in addition to the 
air that comes up through the grates from below in the 
ordinary way, insure an economy of fuel and thereby 
effect a saving in operating* expense. They keep the 
supply of oxygen at all times sufficient to insure a prac¬ 
tically perfect combustion of the unconsumed carbon 
and hydrocarbon gases which are ordinarily wasted and 
lost in the form of black smoke pouring from the stack. 

The problem of securing complete combustion of fuel 
on a locomotive, is one that presents peculiar difficulties. 
The quantity of fuel to be burned is so large, and the 
firing space relatively so small, that ordinarily the con- 


274 


HOLLOW ARCH FOR LOCOMOTIVES 


ditions are unfavorable for economical combustion. A 
ton of average bituminous coal contains about 1,000 
pounds of pure carbon, 700 pounds of hydrocarbon 
gases, and 300 pounds of non-combustible matter or ash. 
The 1,700 pounds of carbon and hydrocarbon gases re- 



Wade Nicholson Hollow Arch for Locomotives. 

quire about 300,000 cubic feet of air for their complete 
combustion. Now, by the usual method of burning coal 
on a locomotive, fully 90 per cent of this air—or 270,000 
cubic feet per ton of fuel burned—must be drawn up 
through the grates. This is practically impossible with¬ 
out forcing the draft to such an extent that the fire 
will be pulled off the grates, and more or less of the 






















HOLLOW ARCH FOR LOCOMOTIVES 


275 


unburned coal carried away through the flues and stack. 
The result is that the supply of air actually used is as a 
general thing insufficient for perfect combustion, and 
the combustible carbon smoke and hydrocarbon gases 
pass through the tubes and out of the stack without giv¬ 
ing up all of their heat to the water in the boiler. The 



Showing Air Circifiation in Firebox of Locomotive Equipped with Wade-Nicholson 
Hollow Arch. 


energy they contain is wasted. If their complete com¬ 
bustion inside the firebox and flues can be secured, this 
energy otherwise lost will be saved. 

How can this be done? In other words, since the 
quantity of air that comes through the grates is insuffi¬ 
cient, how can we get enough air to the fuel without 
interfering with the fire? It must be let in above the 
fire; but it will not do to admit cold air directly from 
the outside, for,, as every fireman knows, the effect of 
that is to act as a damper on the fire,, combustion is 























276 


HOLLOW ARCH FOR LOCOMOTIVES 


retarded, black smoke is formed, and a material loss of 
energy is incurred. The air to be admitted to the fire 
must first be heated to as near the ignition point as pos¬ 
sible. 

This is done by means of the hollow arch. One of 
these arches of the “Wade-Nicholson” type, installed on 
a locomotive, is illustrated in the accompanying cut. 
The device may be installed at both back and front ends 
of the firebox. The hollow passage through the arch 
leads directly through suitable openings in the firebox 
sheets, from the outer air to the combustion chamber, 
being deflected downward toward the fire at the inner 
end. The walls of the arch are highly heated, and im¬ 
part their heat to the current of air„ which, as it emerges 
into the firebox, is practically at the temperature of 
ignition. There mingling directly with the combustible 
gases, an approximately perfect combustion is estab¬ 
lished. The resulting economy in fuel is estimated to 
average a saving of at least 8 per cent. 

Arches of the above type have, after severe test, 
been adopted by the Chicago & Northwestern Railway. 

In addition to the saving in fuel, the following advan¬ 
tages are claimed for the hollow arch: 

Being air-cooled, its life is two to three times that of 
the ordinary solid brick arch. 

It does away with the smoke nuisance. 

The air being heated before striking the combustible 
gases, unites with them instantly, giving a brighter, 
cleaner, more intense fire, and resulting in a better 
steaming engine. 

The back arch acts as a baffle-sheet, protecting the 
crown sheet arid upper flues, and gives a more uniform 


HOLLOW ARCH FOR LOCOMOTIVES 


2 77 


distribution of heat throughout, resulting in less leaky 
flues and a saving in boiler repairs. 

The arch can be used either with or without the cir¬ 
culating tubes. 

Arches can readily be removed and reset, in whole or 
in part, without damage, to give access to the flues when 
repairs are needed- 

























■ 










































































































> - • . • • 














- 






. 

, • 










y 

* 

* 





* 

*- ' ' * r . 


* 
















































■ - 


- 













Fuel Combustion 



379 





FUEL COMBUSTION 


Next to wages, the fuel bill is the largest single item in 
the cost of conducting railway transportation. Recog¬ 
nition of this fact by railway managements has long 
been evident in their efforts toward its reduction through 
a consistent policy of giving trial to practically every 
feature of locomotive design which gives promise of 
enabling increased economy of operation. Both money 
and time have been freely given to exhaustive trial of 
all ideas in boiler proportions, front end arrangements, 
compounding, superheating, etc., as well as to invest¬ 
ments in fuel handling plants seeking to cheapen the 
cost of placing the fuel on the tender. 

Is it unreasonable then, for the managements to ex¬ 
pect the co-operation of the engine crews in obtaining 
the results sought for by all this investment, viz: a re¬ 
duction in the fuel cost of conducting transportation? 
For, since the actual generation and utilization of the 
steam is entirely in the hands of the engine crews, the 
greatest factor in the fuel bill is of necessity, entirely 
a matter of engine crew skill and judgment, and our 
managements are certainly entitled to much credit for 
their policy of encouraging rather than insisting upon 
reasonably economical methods of firing and running. 

Since one must know the reason for doing things in 
order to be sure of getting satisfactory results, it has 
been thought of interest to gather certain scientific facts 
relating to fuels and the combustion process and show 

281 


282 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


their relations to the operation of locomotive firing. No 
one appreciates better than the author the seemingly re¬ 
mote relation of theoretical expositions to the work in 
prospect, when one crawls up the left side of a power¬ 
house-on-wheels, attached to a little less than a mile of 
cars, at three o’clock of a winter’s morning. Yet he 
remembers an instance where such relations were most 
distinctly brought out in a case where life was made 
miserable for a succession of firemen who could not keep 
hot a class of engines which had the name of being good 
steamers on the division from which they had been 
procured. This continued until the mechanical engineer 
came down and recalled the fact that on the original di¬ 
vision the coal was of about 14,000 B. T. U. quality, 
which gave an evaporation of about 8 lbs. of water per 
pound of coal. Also that on the hard part of the runs 
the engines had required about 2.5 tons of this coal per 
hour, which, on the 30 sq. ft. of grate area of these en¬ 
gines, meant a combustion rate of 167 lbs. of coal per sq. 
ft. of grate area. On the present division the coal was of 
only about 11,000 B. T. U. quality, which would give an 
evaporation of only 6.3 lbs. of water per lb. of coal and 
hence it would require the burning of 6,350 lbs. of coal 
per hour, at a combustion rate of 202 lbs. of coal per sq. 
ft. of grate area per hour—a practical impossibility. 

It will be the aim in these articles to show such rela¬ 
tions rather than to merely set down bare theoretical 
facts, and because of this aim the author takes the liberty 
of abandoning the usual methodical progress in things, 
preferring to show the applications in the most apt 
places. 

As wood, coal and petroleum are the only locomotive 
fuels used in this country, we will not concern ourselves 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


283 


with other fuels. And since wood has practically passed 
from the field, it may be well to dismiss it with the re¬ 
mark that one pound of coal is equal in heat value to 
about 2^4 pounds of dry wood of any species. As this 
leaves but coal and petroleum, it may be well to give 
the geological statement on the origin of these fuels, as 
follows: 

At one period of the earth’s development, known as 
the carboniferous age, the atmosphere carried a far 
greater amount of carbonic acid than at present. This 
carbonic acid is the food of plant life and, in consequence 
of attendant favoring climatic conditions, the vegetation 
was luxuriant in the extreme. This period continued 
until the atmosphere became poor in carbonic acid. The 
result was immense beds of decomposed vegetation 
(peat) which, under ensuing geological changes, became 
submerged and overlaid to a greater or less depth with 
later formations of the earth’s present surface. Ac¬ 
cording to the pressure exerted by these superimposed 
weights these peat beds were converted through com¬ 
pression into what we now recognize, in order, as brown 
lignite, black lignite, low-grade bituminous, high-grade 
bituminous, semi-bituminous and semi-anthracite coals. 
In certain localities, to this element of pressure there was 
an added element of igneous (viz: from the interior of 
the earth) heat, which subjected the peat bed to a process 
of distillation which set free the volatile constituents 
* (hydro-carbons) and left solely the fixed carbon of an¬ 
thracite coal. The volatile constituents, in the form of 
gas or oil, thus set free were driven into natural reser¬ 
voirs of the earth, which are now tapped as “gas” or 
“oil wells.” 

Because these beds of coal are discovered today in 


284 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


various stages of the completeness of this evolution, it 
is obvious that there can be no sharp demarkations drawn 
between these classifications. The chemical constitution 
of coal comprises carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, 
sulphur and ash (or earthy matter). After an extended 
investigation of the coals of this country, the coal test¬ 
ing section of the United States Geological Survey has 
adopted a classification whereby a coal is designated bv 
its percentage of carbon, divided by its percentage of 
hydrogen, as follows: 

Table I. 

Carbon-hydrogen ratio 


Lignite . 9.3 to 11.22 

Bituminous, Four grades.11.2 to 12.5 


12.5 to 14.4 
14.4 to 17.0 
17.0 to 20.0 

Semi-bituminous ...20 to 23 . 

Semi-anthracite .23 to 26 

Anthracite—two grades.26 to 30 

30 and above 

That is to say, that a coal analyzing, say, carbon 78.16 
per cent, hydrogen 3.85 per cent, would (78.16-4-7.37= 
10.6) fall under the lignite classification. Or, one analyz¬ 
ing 78.43 per cent of carbon and 3.66 per cent of hydro¬ 
gen would, (78.43-^-3.66=21.4) fall under the semi- 
bituminous classification. 

The indications of the classification referred to in the 
previous section of this series, appearing on page 371 of 
the November, 1906, issue of the Railway Master Me¬ 
chanic, are shown in the table below and are typical 
examples compiled from the tests mentioned. 







FUEL COMBUSTION 


285 


As a lignite represents the most incomplete evolution 
of coal, occupying as it does a stage between peat and 
bituminous coal, its physical structure generally retains 
more or less trace of its plant life origin. It may be 
either brown or black in color and breaks unevenly with 
a dull lustre. It crumbles easily and on exposure to 
the weather absorbs much moisture. 

As its total percentage of carbon is relatively low, and 
its percentage of hydrogen is also less than in most of 
the other classes of coal, its heat value is low (see table 
II) and a great quantity of it must be burned to pro¬ 
vide the same quantity of steam than where bituminous 
coal is used. For instance the Texas lignite noted in 
the table has a heat value of 10,990 B. T. U., while the 
Indian Territory bituminous has 14,624 B. T. U. Hence 
the lignite is but 10,990-^-14,624=75 per cent as efficient, 
or in other words, it would be necessary to burn 1*4 tons 
of this lignite to produce the amount of steam which one 
ton of this Indian Territory bituminous coal would gen¬ 
erate. Or, taking 5,000 lbs. (2.5 tons) of coal per hour 
as the maximum capacity of a fireman in continuous 
freight service and 8 lbs. of water to 220 lbs. pressure 
steam per lb. of the Indian Territory coal per hour as 
the evaporation obtainable with this grade of coal, we 
will have as the maximum which one fireman can pro¬ 
duce with the Indian Territory coal 5,000X8=40,000 
lbs. of water per hour. Bu t with the Texas lignite, 
since 75 per cent of the 8 is 6, 5, 000X=30,000 lbs. of 
water per hour. Or, since at 220 lbs. pressure steam has 
a volume of 1.94, we have 40,oooX 1.94=77,600 cu. ft. 
of steam per hour, with the Indian Territory coal; and 
30,000X1-94=58,200 cu. ft. of steam per hour with the 
Texas lignite. 


286 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


Assuming a cylinder stroke of 32 ins. and a cut off of 
75 per cent for maximum working at a speed of 8 miles 
per hour with a 56 ins. driving wheel, we may then de¬ 
termine as the maximum sizes of simple freight locomo¬ 
tives which these two fuels will enable to be operated, 
as follows: 

The diameter of the cylinders for the locomotive us¬ 
ing the Indian Territory coal will be 


J 


77,600 cu. ft. of steam 


7854X 32 ins. X3 (for 75$) x 5280 ft. x 12 ins. x 10 m.p.h. 


,1728 x 3.1416 x 56 


= 22.23 ms. 


while with the lignite we can only supply cylinders 


58,200 

.7854 X 32 X 3 X 5280 X I 2 X 10 


1728 x 3.1416 x 56 


= 19 25 ins. in diameter. 


This would mean we could only secure 

19.25 2 x 32 x (80# of 220) 

-^-= 37.473 lbs. of 

tractive effort from the use of the Texas lignite, while 
with the Indian Territory bituminous we could secure 


22.232 x 32 x (80# of 220) 
56 


= 49.735 lbs - of 


tractive efforts. 


Or, figuring the tractive effort as utilizing 22.5 per 
cent of the weight on drivers, we could operate a loco¬ 
motive weighing 49,735-^.225=221.047 lbs. on drivers 
with this grade of bituminous coal, whereas one of only 
37,473-4-22.5=166,547 lbs. on drivers could be oper¬ 
ated with the lignite. 

Naturally, since lignite has suffered the least change 
from peat stage through the factors of age, compres- 
motive weighing 49,735-4-22.5=221,047 lbs. on drivers 











FUEL COMBUSTION 


287 
























































288 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


sion and heat, it is the li’ghtest of the coals and its 
use m locomotives requires a different method of han¬ 
dling from the more advanced coals. Being light, it 
is easily dragged from its position on the grates, hence 
a softer draft is required than is permissible with bi¬ 
tuminous coal; in other words a larger nozzle tip is 
used with the lignite. This fact of lightness also leads 
to a fire throwing effect greatly resembling wood, so 
that a 4 by 4 or even a 5 by 5 netting is generally used 
—in fact the diamond stack either with a short front 
end without netting or a long front end with netting 
is found essential, as in burning wood. Lignite coats 
the tube sheet after the manner of wood, where the 
slightest tube leakage is present. By reason of the 
fine netting required the amount of opening in the 
grate intersticing becomes highly important, though 
this cannot be made too great on account of the light 
fuel falling through. A 35 per cent intersticing is gen¬ 
erally practiced, with a rocking type of grate through¬ 
out (dump grate not required) though the fire should 
be disturbed as little as possible by grate shaking. 

A deep ash pan is preferably used because of the 
considerable amount of ash-falling into it with most 
grades; and a large amount of air openings protected 
by netting is imperative. In firing, a good depth (body) 
of fire is first built up and then kept at this depth 
through firing on the one or two shovel plan. There 
is sometimes a considerable tendency for the fire to 
“kick back” through the door, which must be watched. 
Some lignites have very little clinker, while others con¬ 
tain a large percentage, hence, beyond these general 
served by practice, which will indicate the permissible 
or imperative departures from the hints here set forth ; * 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


289 


for as in everything else judgment is essential in ob¬ 
taining the most satisfactory results. 

As the deposits of bituminous coal are very widely 

distributed and the general run of it is well adapted 

to the purpose, this is the coal most generally used in 

locomotives. In color it varies from a dark brown to 

a deep black. In physical structure its lower grades 

(in its evolution from peat) are generally found less 

compact and to crumble rather than fracture, but as 

the grades are found more advanced toward the semi- 

bituminous or semi-anthracite stage, the structure is 

more compact and it fractures cleanly with a bright 

lustre. 

« 

As observed in Table II, the United States Geolog¬ 
ical Survey classifies the bituminous coals into four 
grades, of which the characteristics of typical examples 
in the upper and lower limits of each grade are set 
forth in the table. 

Bituminous coals in general may be said to carry 
as much and generally more fixed carbon than the lig¬ 
nites, but less than these classes known as semi-bitum¬ 
inous, semi-anthracite, or anthracite proper. But the 
distinguishing characteristics of a bituminous coal is its 
high percentage of volatile combustible matter, which is 
present to a less extent in lignites and is extremely 
low in anthracites. When the bituminous coal is ig¬ 
nited, this volatile combustible matter is set free and 
burns with a long flame which terminates in invisibil¬ 
ity under proper conditions of combustion, but under 
improper conditions this flame terminates in smoke. 

Owing to the wide range of the individual character¬ 
istics of bituminous coals, both the arrangements for 
burning and the methods of firing must of necessity 


290 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


vary considerably. For instance, with the West Vir¬ 
ginia Pocahontas coal in Table II, a larger extent of 
grate opening can be used, a lesser area of grate sur¬ 
face is necessary, a larger nozzle tip and a larger mesh 
of netting can be used and a generally smaller boiler 
will be necessary than with the, sav, Iowa Marion coal 
further down in the table. 

Differences in firing methods are permissible or com¬ 
pelled by the lightness or fineness of the coal, or by 
variations in the amounts of slate, iron, or other clink- 
' ering substances which are encountered in the coal fur¬ 
nished. For instance, the author remembers noting on 
the Bessemer & Lake Erie, an excellent grade of coal 
received directly on the tenders from the mine’s mouth, 
used in heavy consolidation locomotives with long, nar¬ 
row, “above-the-frames” fire-boxes. The firing practice 
was to merely load in several scoops of coal just in 
front of the door. At the next firing interval, the hoe 
was thrown into the now-coked mass and all of it spread 
out up ahead. At the next firing interval fresh coal was 
again piled up in front of the door for coking. This 
method of firing gave excellent results, with much less 
physical exertion than was involved in the usual meth¬ 
od of distributing with the scoop ; yet it was only pos¬ 
sible because of the practically total absence of clinker- 
ing material and the coking nature of the coal. In fir¬ 
ing, as in everything else, judgment is essential and 
the best method of handling a coal which is new to the 
man or to the division, can only be found after some 
experiment both with the coal and with the particular 
locomotive. With a careful noting of conditions and 
behavior, however, a good fireman will grasp these 're¬ 
quisites within the space of a few fires. 


I'UEL COMBUSTION 


291 


We still hear the “two-shoveP method of firing, or 
the Bates door practice, held up as the ideal. While, 
of course, fight firing at short intervals is the proper 
way to secure the best results, still these criterions of 
what constitutes light firing were fixed in the days of 
small power and light trains. In these days of heavy 
power and tonnage freight trains, or heavy, high-speed 
passenger trains the intervals between firing are so short 
as to almost preclude any other method than that of 
standing on the deck and firing continuously on the 
major portions of the run. 

As a matter of fact, light firing with either light or 
heavy power does not mean so much that the fireman 
should use two scoops at short intervals, as that he 
should not use twelve scoops at ill judged intervals, that 
he should not fire heavily in light parts of the run, that 
he should know his division and not put in a heavy fire 
just when he knows the engine is to be shut off, and 
that he should not seek to impress the natives around 
stations by opening up a gas factory. In short, light 
firing means stinting the fire as much as possible all over 
the road and instead of seeing how much coal one can 
put into the firebox, to cheat it at every opportunity. 

While the theoretical reasons for which it is more de¬ 
sirable to fire small quantities at short intervals rather 
than larger quantities at longer intervals, are set forth 
in the following chapter, it may be said in substance at 
this point that with light firing the glowing bed of fire 
necessary for perfect combustion is not cooled off so 
much with a thin layer of coal as it is with a thick layer, 
in other words heavy firing lowers the temperature of 
the fire. Again, where a large quantity of coal is thrown 
cn the fire, the air essential to its combustion cannot im- 


292 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


mediately get to this fresh coal in quantities sufficient to 
provide for perfect combustion. From both these causes, 
the fire is not so hot as it would be with perfect com¬ 
bustion and a more or less portion of the combustible 
material in the coal is not transformed into heat, but 
passes out of the stack in smoke, indicating the imper¬ 
fect part of the combustion process of that particular 
“fire” put in. 

Anthracite coal, being the final evolution of coal in 
having had the volatile constituents practically all driven 
off, is composed principally of fixed carbon and hence 
gives out little flame or combustible gases during the 
process of burning. Because of this, the heat of the 
fire is developed more in the immediate vicinity of the 
grates, so much so in fact, that it is usual to replace the 
common arrangement of grates with a design which em¬ 
braces a number of water tubes in the grate area. 

As but little gas is formed while burning anthracite, 
little smoke is produced, and fairly good combustion can 
be effected by passing the air through the grates alone. 
With a very thick fire, however, sufficient air cannot be 
forced through the grates and coal to admit of complete 
combustion and, therefore, carbonic oxide in place of 

4 

carbon dioxide will be formed, with a great loss of heat, 
if the air is not admitted above the fire. When carbon 
and oxygen unite to form carbon oxide, only 4,500 units 
of heat are generated, whereas, if they combine to form 
carbonic dioxide (complete combustion) 14,500 heat units 

will be produced, and 10,000 heat units gained simply 

« 

by securing complete combustion. To effect this and 
to save the 10,000 heat units, sufficient air must at all 
times be admitted to complete the combustion. 

Although the heat units of anthracite and the high 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


293 


grade bituminous coals run about the same in amount, 
vet anthracite coal burns more slowly than the other 
coals. Therefore the amount of heat given off by anthra¬ 
cite coal within a given time is not so great in amount 
as would be true of bituminous coal. Hence, to obtain 
the amount of heat required by a locomotive within a 
given time, more anthracite coal must be kept in the 
process of burning. In other words we must use a 
larger grate area with anthracite than with bituminous 
coal. Anthracite is broken like bituminous coal and, 
therefore, must be fired as it is furnished. The thick- 
ness of the fire will depend upon the size of the coal to 
be used. It will be impossible to keep up steam with a 
thin fire composed of large sized coal, for the reason 
that large quantities of air would rush through the open¬ 
ings between the lumps, causing all the losses so often 
mentioned as due to too much air. In fact, to properly 
fire anthracite coal so as to give the required steam pres¬ 
sure with complete combustion as much skill is required 
as with bituminous coal. 

Petroleum or fuel oil, as already explained, is the re¬ 
sult of a distillation of lignite of bituminous coal under 
great pressure. It is a thick, very dark liquid, having an 
occasional greenish tinge. It is a hydro-carbon liquid, 
or rather is composed of a large category of liquid hy¬ 
dro-carbons of various chemical constitutions. An aver¬ 
age sample presents the following ultimate analysis: 

Carbon .84 per cent 

Hydrogen .14 per cent 

Oxygen . 2 per cent 

In British thermal units this sample scales 20,845. 





294 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


Some calorimeter tests on samples of California oil re¬ 
sulted as follows: 


Heat Value 


Calories per Gram. 


Actual Results. 


\ 9378 / 
/ 9405 \ 
} IO314 
I IO329 
\ I 0247 
) 10229 

5 9407 ) 
1 9433 > 

\ 10252 1 
/10280 \ 
5 10316 1 

1 10314 \ 

5 9929 1 

/ 9946 ^ 

j 9871 / 
1 9897 i 


Average. 


9391-5 

10321.5 

10238.0 

9420.0 

10266.0 

10315-0 

9937-5 

9884.0 


B. T. U. 

per lb. 
Average. 


16904.7 

18578.7 

18428.4 
16956.O 

18478.8 
18567.O 

17887.5 

17791.2 


PerCent 

Sulphur. 

Per Cent 
Moisture 

Per Cent 
Silt. 

Specific 

Gravity. 


oo 00 

8.71 

.032 

•9637 


1 ".96 ( 

•42 . 

.010 

.9407 


.96 i 
•99 \ 

I.06 

.031 

.9417 

; 

% \ 

8.82 

.024 

.9629 

3 -70 l 

1 -77 s 

I.06 

.010 

•9430 

3 

1.01 s 

•74 

.024 

.9410 

< -93 f 

f -98 3 

4.62 

.048 

.9529 

3 ' '.98 ! 

4-93 

.054 

9530 


In the southwest, where most of the fuel oil is used 
in locomotives it is generally taken that about four bar¬ 
rels of fuel oil is equal to one ton of coal. Some tests 
made on the Southern Pacific in 1901 resulted in the 
finding that 170 gallons of fuel oil were equal to one 
ton of coal. This would appear to be reasonable, for 
from the above table the oil will weigh roughly 7.9 lbs. 
per gallon which, at 42 gallons to a barrel would give 
331.8 lbs. of oil per barrel. Taking 18,000 B. T. U.’s 
as the average heat value we have each barrel of or 1 
providing 5,972,400 B. T. U.’s or 24 million heat units 
in four barrels of 168 total gallons. The coal referred 
to probably ran about 13,000 B. T. U.’s per lb., or, also 
24 million B. T. U.’s per ton, so that as far as the rela¬ 
tive cost of fuel is concerned, oil of this quantity at 50 































FUEL COMBUSTION 


295 


cents a barrel would equal this grade of coal at $2.00 
per ton. For railway use, however, there are other con¬ 
siderations involved. While requiring less physical exer¬ 
tion, its use demands greater attention from the fireman 
and a careless fireman cannot only cause much more dis¬ 
comfort through the production of black smoke but he 
can damage a firebox to an extent impossible with coal. 
On the other hand the oil can be transported and handled 
much more conveniently and cheaply than coal and the 
delay and general cost both on the road and at the round¬ 
house due to dirty, clinkered fires, fire cleaning and cin¬ 
der handling, is entirely avoided. The specific methods 
of firing this fuel will be taken up later. 

Most substances can, by proper methods, be separ¬ 
ated into two or more substances of a simpler nature, 
and these can again be separated into still simpler 
means, which cannot be further separated or decomposed 
by any means known. Such substances as cannot be 
decomposed into simpler ones are called elements. Al¬ 
though there are thousands of different substances, they 
are really made up of a comparatively small number of 
elements. There are but sixty or seventy elements that 
are known, and a large number of these are rarely met 
with. The following is a list of a few of the more 
common elements, the letter or letters after each name 
being the “symbol” of the element: Oxygen, O; Hy¬ 
drogen, H; Nitrogen, N; Carbon, C; Sulphur, S; Tin, 
Sn; Copper, Cu; Lead, Pb; Zinc, Zn; Silver, Ag; Gold 
Au; Mercury, Hg; Nickel, Ni; Aluminum, A 1 ; Planti- 
num, Pt. The elements, oxygen, hydrogen and nitro¬ 
gen, are gases at ordinary temperatures. When two or 
more elementary substances combine chemically, they 
form what is known as a compound substance. For - 


296 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


example:—Water, being composed of hydrogen and 
oxygen, is a compound substance. 

Carbon is the main element of organic nature, whether 
animal or vegetable. Every living thing, from the 
smallest to the largest animal, and from the moss to 
the largest tree, contains this element as a most neces¬ 
sary part of its structure. It is found not only in living 
things but in their fossil remains, such as coal. In 
the uncombined state, pure carbon is found in the two 
very different forms: as first, diamond; second, graph¬ 
ite or plumbago. Carbon also occurs more or less pure 
in lamp-black, charcoal, coal and coke. In this condi¬ 
tion it is porous, absorbs gases, is valuable as a disin¬ 
fectant, and as charcoal, coal or coke, it is used as a 
fuel and burns in ordinary air at temperature corres¬ 
ponding to the red heat of iron. 

Oxygen is the most widely distributed element in 
nature, and it exists in very large quantities. It forms 
between forty and fifty per cent of the solid crust of the 
earth, eight-ninths of the water, and about one-fifth of 
the air. Oxygen is an invisible, tasteless gas and has 
no odor. It is slightly heavier than air. For equal vol¬ 
umes of air and oxygen, the oxygen will weigh 1.1066 
times as much as the air. Under very high pressure 
and a very low temperature it becomes a liquid. Oxy¬ 
gen is necessary to animal life and combustion; without 
it for breathing purposes, all animals would die, and 
as it is the element which supports combustion, nothing 
could burn without it. 

Hydrogen is found in nature in large quantities, and 
very largely distributed. It forms one-ninth the weight 
of water and it is contained in all substances which 
enter into the combination of plants and animals. Hy- 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


297 


drogen is a colorless, tasteless gas, and has no odor. It 
is the lightest known substance, being fourteen and one- 
half times lighter than air and sixteen times lighter than 
oxygen. In order to burn hydrogen, it must, like wood 
and other combustible substances, be heated to the kin¬ 
dling temperature before it will ignite or take fire. The 
hydrogen flame is colorless or very slightly blue. When 
hydrogen burns it combines with oxygen and forms an 
invisible gas, which, when condensed, will be found to 
be ordinary water. Hydrogen forms about fifty per cent 
of coal or illuminating gas, or about one-half of the 
gases distilled from the coal in the firebox. 

Nitrogen is a gas which has neither color, taste nor 
smell. It will not support combustion, neither will it 
burn. The air is composed of about twenty-one per 
cent of oxygen and seventy-nine per cent of nitrogen. 
An animal would die if compelled to breathe simply 
nitrogen, for the reason that it will not support respira- 
. tion. It is very useful in the air, however, as it dilutes 
the oxygen, thus making the process of combustion less 
active than it otherwise would be. Its usefulness lies 
not in what it does itself, but in its preventing the oxy¬ 
gen of the air doing too much. If the proportions of 
oxygen and nitrogen were reversed, most substances 
now used as fuel would be destroyed by oxidation, (slow 
combustion or rusting) before they could be utilized in 
combustion, and the air entering our lungs, would, sim¬ 
ply by too rapid combustion, shorten rather than 
lengthen our lives. 

The element sulphur, is a yellow, brittle substance, 
which is almost colorless at fifty degrees F. below zero. 
It melts at 11454° F., forming a thin, straw-colored 
liquid. When heated to a higher temperature, it be- 


298 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


comes darker and darker in color, and at 250° F. it is 
so thick it will not run. At 448.4° F. it boils and is then 
converted into a brownish yellow vapor. Sulphur is 
found as an impurity in most kinds of coal and by act¬ 
ing as a flux on other impurities of the coal it aids in 
forming the troublesome “clinker/' 

Water is made of two parts of hydrogen to sixteen 
parts of oxygen, by weight, or by volume, two volumes 
of hydrogen to one of oxygen. 

Air is the gaseous substance which fills the atmos¬ 
phere surrounding the earth. It has no color, taste or 
smell. It is made up by weight, of oxygen 20.61 parts; 
nitrogen, 77.95 parts; carbondioxide, .04 parts, and wa¬ 
ter 1.4 parts and a slight trace of a newly discovered 
gas called Argon, of which little is yet known. Air is 
never perfectly dry, but always contains a varying 
amount of water vapor. It is estimated that the air or 
atmosphere extends to a height of from fifty to 200 
miles. By virtue of its weight it produces a pressure 
in all directions at the sea level of 14.7 lbs. per square 
inch, or about one ton per square foot. 13.6 cubic feet 
of air at 6o° F. weighs one pound. 

Combustion is a word applied to any action whereby 
the element oxygen combines with any other element. 
Combustion is ordinarily understood to mean the act of 
burning fuel, such as wood, coal, etc. Quick combus¬ 
tion or ordinary burning, is simply oxygen of the air 
combining rapidly with the carbon or gases of the fuel. 

Oxygen will not combine readily with other elements 
at ordinary temperatures, and in order that they may 
combine rapidly, their temperature must be raised to 
what is called their - burning or kindling temperature. 
If this were not the case combustible substances would 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


299 


immediately burn up, as the air contains a sufficient 
quantity of oxygen for this purpose. If a piece of wood 
or coal is put on the fire, it will not burn until the tem¬ 
perature with which it combines rapidly with oxygen is 
reached, when it combines to burn. Watch a stick of 
wood burning and it will be seen that the fire creeps 
slowly along it. The reason for this is that only the 
portion of the stick nearest the burning part becomes 
heated to the kindling temperature. Different kinds of 
fuel have different kindling temperatures; a fact which 
should be remembered. 

Coal gas will not burn below a temperature corre¬ 
sponding to the red heat of iron, and carbon has a still 
higher kindling temperature. The hydro-carbon gases 
given off from coal when burning, require for combus¬ 
tion a temperature corresponding to the cherry heat of 
iron. In order to burn coal it must be kept at a higher 
temperature still. The active portion of a fire in a fire¬ 
box is constantly giving off gases from the fuel which 
require a high temperature for their combustion. Where 
these gases are burned in the firebox they give off a 
great deal of heat, but when the temperature of any 
part of the firebox is so low that the gases pass away 
unconsumed, there is a great waste of heat, and extra 
coal must be used to make up for this waste. A fire¬ 
man, therefore, should never let the temperature in any 
part of the firebox fall below the kindling temperature 
of the fuel and the gases given off by it. tl is a mistake 
to think that the temperature of a firebox is always hot 
enough to give complete combustion. Cold air coming 
through a thin fire may not be heated to the proper tem¬ 
perature, and when it touches the gases in the firebox it 
chills them, reducing their temperature below the kin- 


300 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


dling point and they pass off unburned. If ‘‘a heavy 
fire” be given, the cold material chills the gases given 
off by the hot fire beneath and they pass off unburned 
in the form of smoke and coal gas. The firebox sheets 
carry away the heat of the coal next to them so quickly 
that the gases given off in those parts of the firebox are 
liable to be wasted unless the fireman keeps a bright fire 
in the vicinity of the sheets. 

It is to be remembered that a body gives off light 
only when heated to a sufficiently high temperature. 
The question naturally follows, is there any difference 
between the quantity of heat given off when a sub¬ 
stance burns, and when it undergoes slow oxidation 
without giving off light? There is no difference what¬ 
ever. In quick combustion the heat is all given off in a 
short space of time, and the temperature of the sub¬ 
stance becomes high and it gives off light. In slow 
combustion (oxidation or rusting), heat is given off 
slowly for a much longer time, therefore, the tempera¬ 
ture of the substance does not rise very high, as the 
heat is carried off by the surrounding air and adjacent 
objects as fast as it is produced. If the total quantity of 
heat were to be measured, however, we would find it to 
be equal in both cases. 

Combustion is the result of oxygen of the air combin¬ 
ing with the carbon and hydrogen of the fuel. If fuel 
be heated to the kindling temperature, oxygen from the 
air will combine with the carbon and hydrogen of the 
fuel and cause combustion or burning. This is due to 
the fact that all elementary substances, such as hydro¬ 
gen, carbon and oxygen, have a strong attraction for 
each other when heated, and tend to enter into combin¬ 
ation to form some cpmoound substance. 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


301 


When oxygen combines with any substance, we have 
either quick or slow combustion, depending upon the 
rate at which the action takes place. Combustion al¬ 
ways gives off heat, and the quicker the combination, 
the higher the temperature produced. This is one rea¬ 
son why a large piece of coal does not make as hot a 
fire as it would were it broken into small pieces. The 
smaller pieces of coal present more to the action of the 
oxygen, and consequently, they combine more rapidly., 
and as the temperature produced depends upon the rap¬ 
idity with which the coal burns, the smaller coal will 
make the hotter fire. 

It is a law of chemistry that the elements always com¬ 
bine in certain definite proportions. These proportions 
vary with the different elements, but any two elements 
will always combine with each other in a definite pro¬ 
portion or a multiple of that proportion. Thus, oxygen 
always combines with other substances in* proportions by 
weight of eight, sixteen, twenty-four and thirty-two 
parts, all of which are a multiple of eight. Carbon al¬ 
ways combines in proportions by weight of six, twelve, 
eighteen and twenty-four parts. Eight parts by weight 
of oxygen will combine with six parts of carbon, or six¬ 
teen parts of oxygen will combine with six parts of 
carbon, but fourteen parts of oxygen will not combine 
with six parts of carbon. If eight parts of carbon are 
mixed with eight parts of oxygen, six of the eight 
parts carbon will combine with eight parts of oxygen, 
but the remaining two parts of carbon will not combine. 
This would be called incomplete combustion, and is 
caused by not having sufficient oxygen to completely 
burn the carbon. 

To obtain perfect combustion of coal, the following 


302 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


conditions must be observed: First, a sufficient supply 
of air must be admitted to furnish enough oxygen for 
complete combustion; second, this air must be admitted 
in the proper location; third, sufficient time must be 
given for he combustible gases to completely burn when 
properly mixed with the air. The elements of carbon 
and hydrogen furnish about all the heat that is obtained 
from burning coal. If both are completely burned, the 
coal furnishes all the heat of which it is capable. If 
either one or both are not completely burned, part of 
the heat that should be furnished by the coal in burning, 
passes off in the unburned gases and smoke and is 
wasted. 

When coal is thrown on a fire, before any burning, 
can take place, the elements of the coal must be separ¬ 
ated, as they always burn in the order of: First, the 
gases which are distilled from the coal, and combine 
with the oxygen of the air admitted and, secondly, after 
the gas has burned, the coke remaining burns also by 
combining with the oxygen, forming carbonic acid gas. 
The air admitted to the firebox mixes with the g'ases 
given off by the coal. The little atoms of gas combine 
with the atoms of oxygen from the air, generating suffi¬ 
cient heat to produce a little point of light, and the con¬ 
tinuous combustion of the countless atoms of gas and 
oxygen in the different parts of the firebox produces a 
great number of points of light, or what is known as a 
flame. A bright flame in the firebox is an indication 
that the gases are burning, while a dull or absent flame 
and the presence of smoke, indicate that the gases 
are passing away unburned. If the gas does not have 
sufficient time to mix, atom by atom while in the firebox 
and at the kindling temperature, smoke will be produced, 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


303 


Time effects the burning of the gases, for the moment 
they are driven off from the coal they begin traveling 
towards the open air, and thus have but a fraction of 
a second in which to mix and burn while in the firebox. 
The coke, however, remains in the firebox and has its 
own time in which to burn. 

When more air than is necessary to produce com¬ 
plete combustion is admitted to the firebox, it reduces 
the amount of steam generated in two ways: First, by 
reducing the temperature of the gases, and second, by 
increasing the volume of gases which pass through the 
boiler tubes. The greater the volume which must pass 
through the tubes in a given time, the greater must be 
their velocity, and consequently, they remain in contact 
with the heating surfaces of the boiler for a shorter in¬ 
terval of time. Reducing the temperature of the gases 
and the time of contact with the heating surfaces, re¬ 
duces the amount of heat given to the water and, conse¬ 
quently, the amount of steam generated. The ill effects 
of admitting too much air to a fire may be seen by open¬ 
ing wide the damper and draft of a stove when the fire 
is very low; the large volume of air rushing into the 
stove not only cools the gases, but actually cools the 
fire itself, reducing the temperature below its burning 
temperature, thus causing the fire to go out. 

When a match is lit and then blown out, what hap¬ 
pens ? The friction between the sulphur and whatever 
it is rubbed against heats the sulphur to its kindling 
temperature, which is low, and the sulphur burns, heat¬ 
ing the wood to its kindling temperature and causing it 
to take fire. When the match has been used and we 
wish to quench the flame, we generally blow on it. The 
strong current of air coming in contact with the flame 


304 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


and heated wood, carries away the heat from both at 
such a rate that their temperature is reduced below that 
of kindling and the match goes out. Blowing out a 
match is then but another instance of supplying too 
much air for combustion. 

As before stated, when sufficient air is supplied to a 
fire, part of the gases must pass ofif in an unburned con¬ 
dition and a great deal of the coal is wasted. Particles 
of solid carbon, which are also set free and which are 
unable to burn for lack of oxygen, assume the form of 
soot and pass ofif as a cloud of smoke. Had sufficient 
air been supplied, this carbon would have burned and 
the heat thus generated, instead of being wasted, would 
have been utilized in forming steam. 

A lamp chimney is used to produce a current of air 
against the flame of the lamp, so that sufficient oxygen 
is supplied to combine with all the particles of carbon 
set free from the oil. If either the bottom or the top of 
the chimney be partially closed so that the quantity of 
air admitted to the flame is insufficient to give complete 
combustion, the lamp will smoke. This illustrates what 
has been previously said about smoke. 

The quantity of air admitted to a firebox depends 
upon the composition of the coal and the amount to 
be burned in a unit of time. Different kinds of coal re¬ 
quire different quantities of air for complete combus¬ 
tion, the amount depending upon the kind of fuel used. 
Again, the quantity of coal used will depend upon the 
work being done by the engine, and as it requires an 
increased quantity of air to burn an increased quantity 
of coal, it will be seen that the air supplied must vary 
with the work required of the engine and therefore can¬ 
not be a fixed quantity. 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


305 


Theoretically, the quantity of air necessary to com¬ 
pletely burn one pound of carbon is twelve pounds b' f 
weight, or 150 cubic feet by volume. The theoretica. 
quantity of air necessary to produce complete combus¬ 
tion of one pound of carbon is not the quantity that will 
give the best results with a locomotive, however, as has 
been found by experience. The results of a number 
of experiments made w r ith a view of determining the 
proper quantity of air to produce the best results seem 
to indicate that eighteen pounds or 225 cubic feet of air 
per pound of coal is the quantity, if admitted in the 
proper manner. The proper quantity in any particular 
case of locomotive working ■ can be easily noted by a 
careful fireman through observation of the results in 
smoke. 

It is to be remembered that to obtain the best results 
from coal burned in a firebox, sufficient air must be sup¬ 
plied to burn both the coke and the gases. If the coke 
alone were to be burned, sufficient air for this purpose 
could be admitted through the grates, and coal by regu¬ 
lating the thickness of the fire on the grates. To burn 
the gases, however, an additional amount of air is re¬ 
quired. If, now, the thickness of the fire be so regu¬ 
lated that sufficient air is admitted through the grates 
to burn both the coke and the gases when fresh coal 
is supplied, the fire will be too thin and will admit too 
much air after the gases have been consumed. Again, 
if the fire be kept so thin that sufficient air for combus¬ 
tion is admitted through the grates, it will be almost 
impossible to keep the fire level and free from holes 
when the engine is working hard, as the blast will carry 
the lighter particles of coal from the grates through the 
tubes unburned, thus making holes in the fire and per- 


306 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


mitting a rapid inflow of cold air when and where it 
is least desired. It is evident, then, that sufficient air 
for complete combustion of bituminous coal cannot be 
admitted through the grates alone, and that an addi¬ 
tional amount, therefore, should be admitted above the 
fire to complete the combustion. 

When air is admitted above a fire, it must be intro¬ 
duced in such manner that it will at once mix as com¬ 
pletely as possible with the gases in the firebox, other¬ 
wise it will do more harm than good. If it is admitted 
in a large stream, as when the firebox door is opened., 
the air will not mix with the gases, but will form a 
distinct current of its own, just as water from a river 
forms its own current in the large body of water into 
which it empties. 

The gases can only come in contact with the outer 
surface of this cold draft of air, and, without mixing, 
will be cooled below their burning temperature and pass 
away unconsumed. If the air above the fire be ad¬ 
mitted through a number of small openings, it will 
mix more readily with the gases; will be heated to the 
proper temperature more rapidly, and will give more 
complete combustion than if admitted in a large stream. 
As the air admitted above the fire is used almost exclu¬ 
sively in burning the gases it should be regulated in 
amount so as always just to accomplish its purpose. 

The volume of gases is greater just after firing than 
just before and consequently more air will be required 
just after firing to completely burn the extra amount of 
gases. In order to produce the best results then, the 
air required for combustion should be admitted as nearly 
as possible after the following plan: First, the thickness 
of the fire should be regulated, if possible, so that suffi- 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


307 


cient air for the combustion of the coke of the coal may 
be admitted through the grates. This will require a 
thin fire evenly distributed: Secondly, sufficient air 
should be admitted above the fire in small streams so as 
at all times just to complete the combustion. This re¬ 
quires that the quantity of air admitted above the grates 
shall be varied as the quantity of gases vary: Thirdly ; 
the total quantity of air admitted through the grates and 
above the fire, should vary with the quantiy of coal 
to be burned and should at all times be just sufficient to 
give complete combustion. All air which passes through 
the firebox must receive heat, and if more air than i$ 
required passes through it, it will absorb and carry 
away heat that should be used in making steam. 

Experience proves that an engine may consume a 
large quantity of fuel without perfect combustion taking 
place, and that when it does take place a portion only 
of the coal is used in making steam. The principal 
causes of the losses of heat during combustion are: 
First, small pieces of unburned coal which fall through 
the grates or are drawn through the tubes by the blast 
unconsumed; second, in the unburned gases passing 
off in a gaseous or smoky state; third, in the heat which 
the hot gases contain when they escape through the 
smoke stack; fourth, the loss of heat by radiation and 
convection from the boiler, due to the fact that the 
firebox is no sufficiently covered with lagging to pre¬ 
vent radiation and convection of heat from the hot boiler 
plates. 

None of these losses can be entirely prevented, but 
the losses due to unburned coal, unburned gases, and 
radiation and convection may by proper means be very 
much reduced. There must always be a great loss of 


308 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


heat due to the hot gases carying away heat and a fire¬ 
man can do but little to reduce this loss. By permitting 
just the proper amount of air for combustion to pass 
through the firebox, he may reduce it somewhat. The 
loss due to unburned coal, may be prevented by wetting 
the coal and breaking it into lumps which will not pass 
through the grates, and by keeping the fire of such 
thickness that the blast will be unable to pick up pieces 
and force them through the flues. The loss due to un¬ 
burned gases and smoke may be prevented by regulat¬ 
ing the amount and distribution of air admitted to the 
firebox. 

* % ■* 

The quantity of heat wasted, due to the several 

causes already mentioned are as follows: The amount 
lost by radiation and convection may be anywhere be¬ 
tween five per cent and ten per cent; the heat lost in 
the hot ashes, clinkers, and by coal falling through the 
grates and being drawn through the flues, from five 
per cent to fifteen per cent; the waste due to the gases 
escaping at a high temperature through the smoke stack, 
will vary from twenty-five per cent to thirty per cent; 
that due to incomplete combustion will vary from five 
per cent to fifteen per cent. From this is may be seen 
that in general practice about only forty-five per cent 
of the heat of the fuel is utilized in making steam, while 
the remaining fifty-five per cent is lost. 

A fireman handles anywhere from six to twenty tons 
of coal per trip, out of which he uses but forty-five per 
cent or four and five-tenths out of ten tons in making: 
steam, the remainder, or five and five-tenths tons being 
lost. It is true that part of this loss cannot be prevented 
yet it is also true that a goodly share can, in some cases, 
be charged directly to carelessness or ignorance of the 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


309 


laws of combustion on the part of the fireman. Sup¬ 
pose this fireman makes 300 trips a year, using ten tons 
of coal per trip. The total quantity of coal used per 
year will amount to 3,000 tons, out of which fifty-five 
per cent, or 1,650 tons, are lost or wasted. If, now, by 
careful management and skillful firing, this 1,650 tons 
is reduced ten per cent, there will be effected a saving 
of 165 tons of coal per year per engine. For every 100 
ngines this saving would amount to 16,500 tons per 
year, and with coal worth $2.00 per ton the saving ef¬ 
fected would amount to $33,000 per year for every 100 
engines. 

Smoke is the volume of vapor and gases out of the 
smoke stack, colored by particles of carbon or soot. The 
color of the smoke depends entirely upon the quantity 
of carbon present. When a large quatnity of fresh coal 
is thrown on a fire, it absorbs heat very rapidly and re¬ 
duces the temperature of the firebox to such an extent 
that all flame is extinguished and a black vapor formed. 
Now, as before stated, the presence of flame and absence 
of smoke is an indication that the gases of the coal are 
being burned, while the absence of flame or presence of 
smoke is an indication that the gases are passing away ; 
unconsumed. The black vapor or smoke seen in the 
firebox is of a different composition than the real smoke 
issuing from the smoke stack. The vapor or gas of the 
coal in the firebox is a mixture of hydrogen and carbon 
(carburetted hydrogen) colored by tarry matter, sul¬ 
phur, and other volatile ingredients. When the carbur¬ 
etted hydrogen gas is heated to the kindling tempera¬ 
ture, its hydrogen combines with the oxygen of the air, 
forming water which passes off as an invisible vapor. 
Part of its carbon which is liberated is burned, while the 


310 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


remainder passes away in the form of soot, coloring the 
invisible gases and forming what is properly called 
smoke. If sufficient oxygen is present in the firebox and 
at the proper temperature when the hydrogen gases are 
liberated, all the carbon will be consumed and the smoke 
prevented. 

Smoke is an indication of imperfect combustion, and 
consequently of a waste of fuel. Without air there can 
be no combustion and therefore no smoke. With just 
the proper quantity of air there will be perfect combus¬ 
tion and no smoke; with either too much or too little 
air, there will be imperfect combustion and, conse¬ 
quently, smoke will be produced. 

The absence of smoke generally indicates that perfect 
combustion is taking place, yet there are times when 
incomplete combustion takes place without the presence 
of smoke. If the draft is regulated so as to choke the 
fire, and sufficient coal is thrown on to cool the furnace 
below the kindling temperature of the hydro-carbons, 
there will be no flame and the hydro-carbons will pass 
off unburned, without producing smoke. This is a very 
wasteful method of preventing smoke, however, as the 
hydro-carbons amount to fifteen to forty per cent of the 
coal, besides the added disadvantage of making steam 
slowly and irregularly. The draft should always be in¬ 
creased instead of diminished, immediately after firing 
so as to make sure of the hydro-carbons being consumed. 

On most lines a large proportion of the number of 
engine failures is charged to “Not Steaming.” While 
this report covers a multitude of sins, there is no ques¬ 
tion but that on many lines there is not sufficient care 
taken to insure the uniform good steaming of all loco¬ 
motives. Yet the matter of good steaming is closely re- 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


311 


lated to fuel economy, for there is a satisfaction and 
confidence in firing a good steaming locomotive which 
impels a man to show what he can do; while with a poor 
steamer the most expert and conscientious fireman will 
burn more coal in the endeavor to furnish steam than 
he would with a good steamer and in the disgust at the 
always doubtful success of his efforts, he loses interest. 

Where engines are not steaming, it is always the fault 
of either the management or the crews, or both. Loco¬ 
motives can be designed which will steam successfully 
with practically any quality of coal. A locomotive de¬ 
signed for the development of a practical maximum 
power with a grate area which involves the burning of 
14,000 B. T. U. coal at the rate of over 180 lbs. per 
sq. ft. per hr., however, cannot be made to furnish steam 
for an equivalent rate of working with 10,000 B. T. U. 
coal. Equally, a locomotive designed for a certain rate 
of working with a grate area intended for the use of 
10,000 B. T. U. coal at a combustion rate of 100 lbs. 
per sq. ft. per hr. will prove wasteful of fuel with 14,- 
000 B. T. U. coal at this rate of working, because of the 
small nozzle which will be required to induce sufficient 
draft to overcome an unpractically low' rate of combus¬ 
tion when working at half maximum power. This latter 
is not generally appreciated by technical men, but fire¬ 
men have well observed that below a combustion rate of 
50 lbs. per sq. ft. of grate area per hr., the fire does not 
remain in that state of incandescence essential in loco¬ 
motive practice. It bakes and lies dead on the surface. 

It is not meant to imply that the ordinary locomotive 
is unduly restricted to the use of a certain quality of 
coal for the insurance of steaming well, for most locomo¬ 
tives are designed with a grate area (and a concomitant 


312 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


amount of heating surface) of an extent which lies so 
well between the limiting rates of combustion, that good 
steaming can be secured throughout a considerable 
range in coal quality—if the drafting arrangements are 
varied to correspond with the variations in the coals. 
And it is in the roundhouse reporting of matters in this re¬ 
gard that poor steaming locomotives are ofter the fault 
of the crews. How usual it is to note on the roundhouse 
work report book the simple statement “Not steaming!” 
The author thinks frankly that an engineer making such 
a report deserves discharge, for everyone connected 
knows that the poor steaming may be due to any one or 
all of a dozen causes, manv of which cannot be located 
by the roudhouse foreman because it is necessary to ob¬ 
serve the engine under steam and working in order to 
diagnose the trouble. The engine crew have had this 
opportunity and if the specific cause for the failure of 
the engine to steam (where others of the same class 
steam well with the same coal) is not reported by the 
engineer, he is either too ignorant or too careless to be 
retained in charge of a locomotive. 

It being obvious that a locomotive must be in reason¬ 
able condition and reasonably run in order for a fireman 
to accomplish satisfactory results and, the running of a 
locomotive from the standpoints of both the engineer 
and the dispatcher being out of the province of these arti¬ 
cles, we will hence concern ourselves solely with such as¬ 
pects of the locomotive condition as the engine fireman is 
expected to deal with and hence have knowledge of. 

The amount of ash pan opening, as well as grate open¬ 
ing between the fingers thereof, are matters of experi¬ 
ment which should be (and generally long since have 
been) established by the mechanical, or traveling engi- 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


313 


neer—and hence may ordinarily be neglected by the en¬ 
gine crew. The next point of observation is logically, 
the state of the staybolts and boiler tubes with respect to 
leakage. In good water districts this is not so much a 
problem as is the case in districts where the water supply 
is more or less bad. Where stavbolts and boiler tubes 
are addicted to leaking, the matter of fuel economy must 
be deferred until the management is able to provide a 
< better water supply. For where a justifiable fear of 
leakage is in existence, the matter of fuel economy is 
considerably less important than the necessity insuring 
that the locomotive gets its train over the division. 

With a locomotive addicted to leaking, the secret of 
success in getting over the road lies in “keeping her hot” 
—all the time—up hill—down hill—in side—tracks— 
while switching—every place and all the time—to keep 
her hot from the time she is first taken until landed at the 
other terminal. If, in reaching the locomotive for a trip, 
the tubes or staybolts are spurting, it had better be 
turned back to the roundhouse, for a trip would almost 
certainly result in failure. If, however, the tubes or 
staybolts are merely “seeping,” a hot fire will generally 
cause an amount of sheet expansion that will stop the 
leakage—and the prevention of leakage again develop¬ 
ing is merely a matter of constantly maintaining a tem¬ 
perature in the firebox which will prevent this sheet 
expansion from becoming reduced again. 

This is easily understandable if we recollect that the 
tubes and staybolts are fitted to the firebox sheets when 
the metal is cold, or contracted. Good water lies up 
close to the sheets and thus abstracts the heat from the 
sheets as fast as evolved by the fire. Hence the sheets 
do not become heated much above the temperature equiv- 


314 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


alent of the water, and, therefore, the junctions of tubes 
and staybolts with the sheets are not distorted beyond a 
capacity to return to their original tightness when the 
temperature of the fire drops.' Bad water, however, 
either deposits a heavy scale, or else boils away from the 
sheets (generally both). This results in the water not 
abstracting the heat from the sheets as rapidly as it is 
transmitted by the fire. Hence the temperature of the 
sheets rises considerably beyond that of the steam tem¬ 
perature equivalent and, the resulting expansion is so 
great that the junctions of the tubes and staybolts with 
the sheet are distorted beyond their ability to return to 
the original tightness and leakage results. The temper¬ 
ature of steam or water at 200 lbs. pressure is 387 de¬ 
grees. D. K. Clark gives the temperature of 14,700 B. 
T. LI. coal, as follows when burning at certain rates: 


Lbs. of coal per sq. ft. 
of grate area per hour. 
40 
80 
120 
160 
200 

*Would be “about.’’ 


Temperature of surface of 
fire in degrees Flu*. 
1.85- 
2,009 
2,097 
2,137* 

2,157* 


So that unless the water takes the heat away from 
the sheet as rapidly as delivered, the temperature (and 
the consequent expansion) of the sheet will rise very 
quickly above that of the surrounding water. Now 
in the table just quoted it will be noticed that the tem¬ 
perature of the fire does not drop very rapidly until we 
burn somewhat less than 80 lbs. of coal per sq. ft. of 
grate area per hour. As the blower will generally enable 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


315 


a combustion rate of more than 40 lbs. of coal per sq. 
ft. of grate area per hr., to be maintained, the drop in 
fire temperature, which will start a “tender” set of tubes 
to leaking, can be avoided—where merely getting over 
the road becomes more important than fuel economy. 
Firemen will readily remember the manifestations here 
explained in cases where an engine stops leaking when 
working hard, but starts leaking soon after shutting 
off unless the blower is put on. 

Another difficulty encountered with some fuels is 
“honeycombing.” -The author confesses himself unable 
to say anything of particular value in regard to this 
difficulty. He has heard it said that a percentage of 
lime mixed in with the coal will obviate or considerably 
reduce the honeycombing, but he has never seen it tried 
and hence does not vouch for the suggestion. With 
some coals, honeycombing develops into a very serious 
matter, especially in passage service over long divisions. 
In freight service there is generally opportunity around 
stations to knock off the major portion of the clusters 
with a bar, while in passenger service such work must 
perforce be done while rolling down hill, which is con¬ 
sequently a very disagreeable job. The use of brick 
arches considerably reduce the tendency to honeycomb, 
and are hence advisable where such a coal is used in 
passenger service. But in freight service they block the 
efforts of the fireman to knock down the honeycombing 
so effectually that it is generally a better policy to leave 
them out where it is necessary to use a honeycombing 
coal. One thing is certain, however, in this connection, 
viz.: that the roundhouse force should be compelled to 
furnish the locomotive thoroughly free from honeycomb¬ 
ing when delivered to the engine crew. 


316 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


Mention of the brick arch Suggests a few remarks in 
connection therewith. The arch has several functions. 
It is put in order to retard the gases of combustion by 
compelling them to travel a greater distance around it 
before reaching the boiler tubes. When once the gases 
have entered the tubes, no further progress of combus¬ 
tion is possible, hence the longer they remain in the 
firebox the greater opportunity there is for the com¬ 
bustion processes to complete themselves. Furthermore, 
when the arch has become heated, it affords a highly 
heated surface for the gases to impinge upon and thus 
be assisted in the completion of the process of com¬ 
bustion. The arch also heats the air entering through 
the firedoor and tends to deflect it downward toward 
the bed of the fire, and, at the same time throw the 
air and gases into a more thorough mixture. The arch 
also protects the tube sheet from being directly struck 
by the cold air entering the firedoor, and also from the 
effects of letting the fire die down while drifting or 
lying around stations. In some road tests made by the 
author on an old style, 16 by 24 ins. eight-wheel loco¬ 
motive, in passenger service, the locomotive evaporated 
7.5 lbs. of water per lb. of coal, without an arch, and 
8 lbs. with one. The arch increases the difficulty of fring 
to some extent in certain types of fireboxes, and, until 
one gets used to firing with the arch in place, consider¬ 
able coal is landed on top of the arch, or the grate sur¬ 
face next the tube sheet allowed to become exposed. 
One soon becomes accustomed, however, to avoid these 
faults. The arch should be watched, however, and 
any symptom of its breaking down immediately reported 
in order to avoid trouble on the road. 

Where the arch is used, the state of the tubes in re- 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


317 


gard to their being stopped up cannot be observed by 
the crew until the locomotive is started working. And 
even without the arch a considerably greater number 
of tubes may be choked than the few observable from 
the door. While a badly stopped up set of boiler tubes 
will cause remark from one who knows the engine, by 
the slow effect of the blower, yet one unfamiliar with 
the engine in its normal condition would be inclined 
to attribute such a symptom to a weakness of the blower. 
The most satisfactory specific way to observe the state 
of the tubes in this regard is by the lag in the appear¬ 
ance of black smoke after shutting off after the engine 
has been working hard. If the fire has not been pre¬ 
pared for shutting off and if the door is not then opened 
and the blower put on, a locomotive whose tubes are not 
stopped up to any extent, will almost instantly pour 
black smoke out of the stack. If the tubes are pretty 
well stopped up, however, there will be a more or less 
great lag in this appearance and volume of this smoke. 

This matter of choked tubes is one of the most an¬ 
noying, yet most common, occasions for controversies 
between the roundhouse and the engine crews that the 
author can cite. Obviously, every choked tube is that 
percentage of the boiler’s tube heating surface out of 
commission. Any practical man will admit that the eye 
alone will point out 25 choked tubes in five locomotives 
out of 10 on practically any road in this country. If 
25 tubes are choked to an extent which is visible at the 
tube sheet end, it would be a safe bet that there were 
anywhere from 50 to 75 more through which the gases 
could not pass; and if the gases cannot pass through 
a tube is useless. This would* mean 100 useless tubes. 
In a locomotive with 2,500 sq. ft. of tube heating surface 


318 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


from 300 tubes, this would mean one-third of the heat¬ 
ing surface rendered valueless, or, instead of the 2,500 
sq. ft. of tube heating surface, the boiler has practically 
but 1,667 s q* ft. of tube heating surface. No wonder 
there are so many reports of engine failures because of 
not steaming. 

There is much improvement to be desired in round¬ 
house methods on this point. The importance of clean 
tubes is not appreciated, the roundhouse facilities for the 
rapid and easy acomplishment of a thorough job of tube 
cleaning are hopelessly crude in nine out of ten round¬ 
houses on every line in the United States, and the class 
of men assigned to these jobs are absolutely irresponsible 
in the absence of the checking up which is imperative, 
but not given. The result is that the tubes arc not 
cleaned when reported. The author feels very strongly 
on this subject, as a result of several mortifying experi¬ 
ences needless to relate here. It might be well, how¬ 
ever, to point out the absurdity of the average round¬ 
house procedure on a report of “Flues are stopped up.” 
If the arch is in good shape, the foreman is greatly 
averse to undertaking the job and will avoid it if pos¬ 
sible, and hence orders the useless expedient of poking 
a rod through the top tubes which can be reached, and 
the insertion of a hammer handle in the lower tubes 
which are filled up. If the state of the locomotive as 
regards steaming, however, forces some action, the two 
least reliable laborers on the place are set at the job 
with “augers,” which, being but half the diameter of 
the tube, merely half clean such tubes as are entered, 
and—as there is practically no attention given to their 
efforts they loaf on the job, skip all the “hard ones” 
and more than half the “easy” ones. Even if air, steam, 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


319 


or water is furnished for blowing out, instead of bor¬ 
ing the tubes, the dirt of the job causes it to be scan¬ 
dalously slighted. The result is so perfunctory an ac¬ 
complishment of this work as to greatly discourage en¬ 
gine crews in reporting it and often to incline them to. 
merely ask instead for a smaller nozzle tip, or for a 
bridge therein. 

Next to choked tubes, though not as often in evi¬ 
dence, the leaking of a steam pipe joint is the most ab- 

i 

solute bar to a free-steaming engine. While standing 
still, the placing of the reverse lever on center and the 
opening of the throttle will enable the blow of the joint 
to be heard if the valves are tight enough to prevent 
the steam from blowing through them and thus drown¬ 
ing out the blow from the steam pipe joint. While 
working, a leaky steam pipe joint evidences itself to 
blocking the draft to an extent which causes the fire 
to burn as if the nozzle tip were too large, while the 
steam fails more rapidly in the presence of this defect 
than from any other. The location of the leak can 
only be securely placed by opening the front end door, 
while steam is given with the engine on center, when 
it can be heard and seen or located with a torch. 

The deflection, diaphragm, or baffle plate, as variously 
called, controls the level burning of the fire on the 
"rates. If the locomotive burns more coal at the rear 

o 

of the grate surface than it does in the vicinity of the 
tube sheet, the deflector does not extend down far 
enough and should be reported for lowering, say an 
inch. If, on the other hand, coal is burned more rapidly 
in front than in rear, it should be raised. The reason 
for this is simply that raising the deflector allows a 
greater amount of draft through the upper tubes, which 


320 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


have their effect chiefly over the rear of the grate sur¬ 
face, while lowering the plate decreass the draft through 
the upper tubes, and, therefore, the draft over this rear 
portion of the grate surface. 

The size of the exhaust nozzle tip has been the sub¬ 
ject ctf much investigation in its location as respects 
height, with regard to the size of the stack and the gen¬ 
eral arrangement of the front end. So far as the fire¬ 
man is actually concerned in utilizing the arrangements 
furnished him, however, the proposition is simply that 
on the size of the nozzle tip depends the amount (or 
rather, intensity) of the draft. Since the force with 
which the steam passes through the nozzle tip depends 
on its size with relation to the volume of the cylinders, 
the pressure on the exhaust sides of the pistons will de¬ 
crease as the size of the nozzle tip is increased. Natur¬ 
ally a large nozzle means low back presure in the cyl¬ 
inders and a mild draft on the fire, which latter means, 
of course, a slower rate of combustion than where a 
smaller nozzle tip (or a bridge) is used. If, however, 
the nozzle tip is too large, enough draft will not be 
furnished to burn the coal fast enough to cause the 
engine to steam freely. Then the size of the tip must be 
decreased, regardless of the question of cylinder back 
pressure. A skilful and careful engine crew who are 
familiar with the locomotive can run with a larger nozzle 
tip than a less experienced or more careless crew, and 
get far better results both in the way the engine handles 
the train and in the amount of fuel consumed. This 
leads the officials and the more skilful engineers to have 
a great prejudice in favor of a large nozzle. Conse¬ 
quently, when a locomotive comes out of the back shop, 
or has been the regular engine of a skilful crew, it gen- 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


321 


erally is equipped with nozzle tip larger than will pro¬ 
vide sufficient steam for a less skilful crew, or possibly 
a poorer quality of coal than the size of the tip was 
intended for. Hence a report of poor steaming. Per¬ 
sonally, the author goes against general practice by con¬ 
sidering it a better policy to err on the side of too small 
a size of tip than in the direction of too large a tip—for 
the reason that a fireman will use more coal in endeavor¬ 
ing to force an engine to steam with insufficient draft 
than he will where the draft is so strong as to give him 
no fear of not being able to make plenty of steam when¬ 
ever required. Certainly if a locomotive does not burn 
its fire freely and it is not a case of choked tubes or 
leaking steampipe joints, there should be no hesitancy in 
insisting on a reduction in the size of the nozzle tip. 
There is no use in fooling with an engine that does not 
burn its fire. 

There has been, is yet and probably always will be a 
lot of trifling with deflector plates and lift pipes in the 
endeavor to enable the use of a large nozzle tip. As a 
matter of fact, the area extent and size of mesh of the 
netting controls the size of the nozzle tip infinitely more 
than the other front end devices, yet little thought is 
ever given the netting. In the effort to reduce the vol¬ 
ume of the smoke box to an extent which will make the 
front end self-cleaning, the length of most front ends 
have been reduced to an extent which makes it impos¬ 
sible to supply the front end with an area of whose mesh 
is sufficiently fine to prevent fire-throwing with the coal 
used. Obviously, there should be a sufficient area of 
netting of a particular mesh to enable the total of the 
openings between the meshes to equal, if not somewhat 
exceed, the total area of the tube openings. Three hun- 


322 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


clred two-inch tubes are equivalent to an area of 6.545 
sq. ft. The open space between the wires composing a 
three-mesh netting will be about .6 of the total area. 
Therefore, 6.545 should be increased by 40 per cent., 
or there should be at least 9.16 sq. ft. of this mesh net¬ 
ting in such a front end—and preferably a little more. 
Most locomotives will be found to have a smaller area 
of netting with respect to the area of tube openings than 
this. The result is that the nozzle must be contracted 
in order to produce draft enough to pull the gases and 
cinders through an insufficient area of netting. An ad¬ 
ditional effect of such insufficient area of netting may 
be observed by taking off a hand-hole plate and looking 
into the front end when the engine is working hard. 
The lower surface of the netting will be observed to be 
more or less choked by a layer of cinders which are 
drawn up and kept dancing against the lower surface of 
the netting until broken into a fineness sufficient to pass 
through. Obviously, the more restricted the area of the 
netting, the thicker this layer of cinders will be and will 
be then consequent effective in choking the netting. 

The function of the lift, or petticoat pipe, or pipes, is 
not generally understood. There is a very general im¬ 
pression that it may be manipulated to increase the draft 
on the fire. This is entirely wrong, except the indirect 
effect on the fire by means of its action on the netting. 
The function of the lifting pipe is simply and solely to 
distribute and equalize the draft effect of the nozzle 
tip, over the full area of the netting. Without a lift 
pipe, that portion of the netting next the deflector plate 
will naturally receive a stronger draft than the portions 
of netting lying further away from the nozzle. Hence 
the full area of the netting will not be utilized in an 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


323 


equal degree. Where the lift pipe is used (and it should 
preferably be of the three section type) the draft in¬ 
duced by the exhaust is confined in the cylindrical por¬ 
tion of the lift pipe and its effect distributed over the 
whole area of the netting in an equable manner through 
adjustments of the flares with relation to the cylindrical 
portion of the pipe and the portions of the netting over 
which more draft is desired. Thus making the whole 
area of the netting equally efficient, of course, results in 
increasing the draft on the fire. It has been a theory of 
the author that this function of the lift pipe in distribut¬ 
ing the draft could be utilized in entirely doing away 
with the draft obstructing deflector plate, and by means 
of a low nozzle stand and netting reaching clear back to 
the tube sheet, depend on drafting the level burning of 
the fire entirely by the adjustment of the lift pipe—as 
was customary with the old diamond stack. Lift pipes 
may cause trouble by getting out of center with respect 
to the stack, thus throwing the exhaust to one side of the 
stack and confusing the equalization of the draft over 
the netting. When the upper edge is set too close to 
the stack base the face flow of the product of combus¬ 
tion into the stack is interfered with. The lower edge 
may be set so close to the nozzle tip as to too greatly 
muffle the draft over the portion of the netting next the 
deflector plate. They may be so large in diameter as to 
have little effect on the control of the draft distribution; 
they may be so small in diameter as to interfere with the 
entrance of the gases by the exhaust, and, finally, they 
may be made to cover so great a portion of the path 
of the exhaust as to destroy a considerable amount of 
the draft created by the exhaust. These points of sizes 
and adjustments are matters of experiment with each 


324 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


class of engine and often the finer adjustments become 
a matter of experiment with individual locomotives. But 
when such adjustment is once attained, the lift-pipe 
should be left strictly alone and, in case of a falling off 
in the free steaming, the trouble looked for elsewhere, 
unless the pipe has got out of line. 

Bridges or splitters in the nozzle or stack are but ex¬ 
pedients resorted to and encouraged by the roundhouse 
to avoid the greater work of bushing the nozzle tip, 
or providing the engine with a smaller stack.' Their 
effect lies solely in reducing the area of the nozzle tip or 
stack and they result in considerably more back pres¬ 
sure being thrown on the piston than is the case where 
bushings are used instead. A splitter in the stack creates 
a horrible sound and does more harm than good with a 
stack diameter which is less than the diameter of the 
cylinders. Where a nozzle tip or bushing is blown out 
on the road, the slice bar may be stuck down through 
the stack and into the nozzle stand to enable the first 
station to be reached, when it had better be removed and 
broken link heated and bent out so that one arm will rest 
on the netting, while the other extends down into the 
exhaust stand, when lowered in with a piece of bell 
rope. 

As stated in the beginning of this chapter, with a 
poorly designed locomotive, or one in poor condition, or 
adjustment of its draft arrangements, the skill of the 
fireman, perforce, is concerned chiefly with the produc¬ 
tion of steam, without much regard to fuel economy. 
Also, as stated, this may be the fault of the manage¬ 
ment, or the crews, or both. Managements can provide 
locomotives which steam freely with any quality of coal, 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


325 


if kept in proper condition and, if the engine crews as¬ 
sist the management in this keeping of the engines in 
proper condition in the ways here pointed out and in 
many other ways not in the province of these articles to 
mention, but readily called to mind by any man who has 
been around railroads long - enough to get over being 
afraid of the noise. It may be said for railway manage¬ 
ments, that as a rule, with negligible exceptions, the 
managements have furnished locomotives of sufficiently 
near proper design as to enable free steaming with the 
character of coal used on any specific division—if the 
locomotives are kept in proper condition. Right here is 
where the engine crews are often more to blame than 
the management for the condition of the locomotives. 
The neglect of the roundhouse force to perform the 
work reported by the engine crews, engenders a dispo¬ 
sition of the crews to omit reporting of anything but the 
loss of a couple of driving wheels. If, on the contrary, 
all the crews would conscientiously and persistently re¬ 
port every defect on the conclusion of a trip, the round¬ 
house force, or facilities, or both, will soon be observed 
by the management to be inadequate, with the result that 
these matters will assuredly be taken in hand with suf¬ 
ficient determination as to cause the development of a 
proper condition of affairs. 

The foregoing pointing out of human and mechanical 
defects does not imply that such are all apparent every¬ 
where. As a matter of fact, it is to the credit of both 
managements and engine crews of American railways, 
that a good ratio of triumph over these difficulties is 
maintained in the face of the abnormal business and 
(consequently) traffic condition of the past four years. 


326 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


That is to say, that the fireman generally is provided 
with a locomotive with which he can exhibit a reason¬ 
able degree of fuel economy—if he is competent and 
careful (the one trait being invariably the accompani¬ 
ment of the other). Crews are much inclined to com¬ 
plain of poor coal. It has already been explained that 
practically any quality of coal can be made to furnish 
plenty of steam to the locomotives in service unless 
either the crews do not know enough, or are too care¬ 
less to report what alteration or repair is needed to 
enable the locomotive to steam freely, or else this re¬ 
ported work is not done. So it is within the province of 
the crews to obtain free steaming engines in one way 
or another, sooner or later. It is a matter which the 
management is compelled to submit to the judgment, as 
well as the skill, of the engine crews. 

With a free steaming locomotive, and it has been en¬ 
deavored to elucidate how such may be made the rule 
instead of a 50 per cent exception, the problem of clin- 
kering, long hours on road, hauling the tonnage, or 
making the time and finally fuel economy, become sim¬ 
plified to an extent which can be comparatively easily 
handled by the crew. Take the matter of clinkering. A 
coal containing a considerable percentage or rock or 
slate will naturally leave these elements behind on the 
grates, as the combustible part of the coal burns away. 
The solution of the successful firing of such a coal is 
not to allow the clinker to remain in the box to an extent 
which will block the grates. Down hill in passenger 
service, or around stations in freight service, it is a com¬ 
paratively easy matter to loosen up and hook out the 
spots of clinker as they develop to any extent. A pair 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


327 


of tongs for this purpose will invariably be supplied all 
engines leaving terminals, if the firemen get together 
and put it up to the divisional head of the mechanical de¬ 
partment as a matter of grievance. If, through indispo¬ 
sition to take the matter in time and thus head off trou¬ 
ble, of course, the clinkering will rapidly reach a stage 
where a stop for a grisly job of fire cleaning is neces¬ 
sary, or else a failure for steam is developed. In this 
line the author is reminded of a grate arrangement on 
the C., B. & Q., whereby each rocking section of grate 
can be turned into a dump grate by means of a second¬ 
ary grate handling lever and reach rod,“’thus permitting 
clinkers in any part of the fire to be easily knocked 
through into the ash pan—even while running. 

The matter of excessive tonnage is often cited as a 
cause of excessive fuel consumption. If the fire is kept 
clean the facts of the case are directly the opposite of 
such a statement. For locomotives are, perforce, de¬ 
signed with the intention of developing their most eco¬ 
nomical performance at the maximum rate of working. 
Furthermore, the proportion of coal burned per ton of 
freight hauled is, because of the lower speed that heavy 
tonnage implies, much less than is required in develop¬ 
ing the higher speed of lighter trains. Of course the 
heavy tonnage implies longer hours on the road, but that 
is a much more matter of the density of traffic than of 
the bare train tonnage. In this connection it may be said, 
however, that recent intelligent analyses of the heavy 
tonnage proposition has shown that because of several 
other factors than fuel economy and the wages of 
crews, it is more economical on a busy line to reduce 
tonnage to an amount which will allow engines to get 


328 


FUEL COMBUSTION 


over the road at an average speed of from 12 to 15 miles 
per hour, than to load them down to an extent which 
will prevent such average speed being maintained. 
Hence we will doubtless see less of excessive tonnage in 
the future than has been in evidence in the past. 


Westinghouse 
Compound Air Pump 



THE WESTINGHOUSE COMPOUND AIR 

PUMP. _ 

The history of air pumps is a history of the air 
brake, for without this instrument air brakes would 
be valueless as a means of controlling railway trains. 
The first one employed in connection with air brakes 
was a Cameron steam-driven water pump, the hydrau¬ 
lic end of which had been replaced with an air cylinder, 
and while it answered the purpose to the extent of 
demonstrating the practicability of operating brakes by 
compressed air, the six-inch pump is entitled to the 
distinction of being the first successful compressor used 
in connection with air brakes. This type of pump 
answered well its purpose for several years, but with 
the gradual increase in the number of air-brake cars 
in trains its capacity for supplying air became insuf¬ 
ficient and the eight-inch pump was its successor. For 
a considerable period, owing to its greater capacity, 
the eight-inch pump proved quite able to meet all the 
demands imposed upon it, but like the six-inch pump 
was in time forced to retirement from the air-brake 
field and in order following came the 9^-inch and 11- 
inch pumps, each of greatly increased capacity over its 
predecessor. 

During all these years of pump development the 
chief efforts were in the direction of designing pumps 
which would occupy little space on the locomotive, 
eliminating defects which presented themselves, and to 
produce mechanisms capable of meeting the most 

331 


332 


MODERN AIR-BRAKE PRACTICE 


exacting requirements, these desiderata being generally 
considered of greater importance than steam economy 
in operating them. The deduction should not be drawn 
from this, however, that steam economy had not been 
carefully considered, for while such economy has evi¬ 
dently not up to this time been a ruling consideration 
or looked upon as of much importance by railroads it 
is apparent that Mr. George Westinghouse anticipated 
the ultimate requirements when he designed and pat¬ 
ented a compound pump in 1873, shortly after the ad¬ 
vent of air brakes. 

Coincident with the changes made in the operation 
of trains equipped with present standard brake appa¬ 
ratus othey factors of air consumption, which have be¬ 
come associated with the brake system, have imposed 
upon the air pump greatly increased demands. Air 
in large quantities is used in the air brake system of 
long trains and those operating high-speed brakes, 
as well as by ‘‘parasites,” so-called, such as bell ringers, 
track sanders, water-scoops, water-raising system of 
Pullmans, and other accessories on engines and cars, all 
of which require more or less air to operate them, and 
in addition contribute to leakage, the net result of 
which imposes a heavy burden on the air pump. As a 
result there has been created on the part of many rail¬ 
roads a demand for pumps of abnormal capacity and to 
an extent that the consumption of steam in operating 
them has become a matter well worthy of careful con¬ 
sideration. 

Such being the condition confronting railwavs in 


ITS USE AND ABUSE 


333 


these days of effort in the exercise of rigid economy, 
the subject of steam consumption in connection with 
air pumps must become a pertinent one when once the 
constant drain upon the coal pile from this source is 
realized. 

Anticipating this conclusion in the not remote 
future, and to meet such demand, the Westinghouse 
Air Brake Company is now building different types of 
Compound Pumps, the largest of much greater capac¬ 
ity than any other pump yet produced for locomotives, 
and at the. same time making entirely practical an 
economy in steam consumption far in excess of any¬ 
thing heretofore thought practical, or possible. Of 
these pumps the Tandem has three cylinders, one 
above the other the steam cylinder being on top. 

The low-pressure air cylinder is 11x12 inches, the 
same as the standard 11-inch pump; the high-pressure 
air cylinder is 6j4 inches in diameter and the steam 
cylinder eight (8) inches in diameter. It will be ob¬ 
served that this pump is a two-stage compressor, and 
while the area of the low-pressure cylinder is the same 
as the 11-inch pump, and should theoretically take in 
the same volume of free air per stroke, as a matter of 
fact it is of considerably greater capacity than that 
pump and it will also be obvious that a decided steam 
economy must result from employing a steam cylinder, 
the area of which is nearly 50 per cent less than that 
of the 11-inch pump. 

In designing this pump, interchangeability was main¬ 
tained so far as possible and to an extent that the valve 


334 


ITS USE AND ABUSE 


gear, air valve, and various other detail parts are of 
the 9^2-inch pump standard. 

Of the cross compound design of pumps the largest, 
known as the 8^-inch Cross Compound, will be de¬ 
scribed and its points of superiority considered. As 
illustrated in Fig. i this pump is of the Siamese type, 
having two steam and two air cylinders arranged side 
by side respectively, the steam cylinders being at the 
top, as is the usual Westinghouse practice. The high- 
pressure steam cylinder is Sy 2 inches in diameter; the 
low-pressure 14inches in diameter, both having 12- 
inch stroke. The low pressure air cylinder located un¬ 
der the high-pressure steam cylinder, is 143/2 inches in 
diameter and the high-pressure air cylinder, located un¬ 
der the low-pressure steam cylinder 9 inches in diam¬ 
eter. The valve gear is on the top head of the high- 
pressure steam* cylinder and is of a design similar to 
that of the 9and 11 inch pumps. 

The high-pressure steam piston, with its hollow rod, 
contains the reversing-valve rod. which operates the 
reversing valve, and it in turn the main valve and its 
slide valve, which controls steam admission to and ex¬ 
haust from both the high and low-pressure steam cyl¬ 
inders. 

The low-pressure steam and high-pressure air pis¬ 
tons are connected by a solid piston rod, having no 
mechanical connection with the valve gear, being sim¬ 
ply floating pistons. 

The operation of the steam in the steam cylinders, 
(to supply which requires a throttle pipe only one 


MODERN AIR-BRAKE PRACTICE 


335 



Fig. 1 . —Westinghouse Compound Air Pump 



336 


ITS USE AND ABUSE 


inch in diameter), is on the same principle as in two- 
cylinder compound engines generally, steam from the 
boiler being admitted to the high-pressure cylinder^, 
then, after doing its work, expanded to the low-pres¬ 
sure cylinder, and from thence exhausted to the atmos¬ 
phere, the two pistons being in motion at the same 
time, but moving in opposite directions. 

Free air is taken into the larger air cylinder and 
by compression forced into the smaller or high-pres¬ 
sure one, then, in turn, recompressed and discharged 
into the main reservoir. 

In this type of pump the principal objects of at¬ 
tainment sought are the continuance of the well-tried 
out mechanical features of former pumps, simplicity, 
capacity, and economy, and how these have been ac¬ 
complished will be pointed out. 

Referring to the first, nothing of an experimental 
character has been introduced in the pump mechanism. 
To the second, simplicity, the only additional parts to 
those composing the present standard g l / 2 and n-inch 
pumps are, a second air and steam cylinder with their 
pistons and solid piston rod and two air valves, one in 
each of the two passages connecting the low and high- 
pressure air cylinders. As to capacity and economy, 
the first is attained by more closely approximating 
theoretical conditions in the air cylinders than is pos¬ 
sible with simple or duplex pumps, while the economy 
is a result of compounding the steam, less packing¬ 
ring leakage in both the steam and air cylinders, as 
well as almost wholly eliminating thumping and pound- 


MODERN AIR-BRAKE PRACTICE 


337 


ing, something- which has proven inherent and, to an 
extent, destructive to other types of locomotive air 
compressors. 

As already stated, the valve gear and its operation 
is essentially the same as that of the 9j4-inch and n- 
inch pumps. The reversing valve performs the same 
duties and is operated by the reversing-valve rod in 
the same manner as that of the g l / 2 -mch and n-inch 
pumps. 

The main slide valve is provided with the usual 
exhaust cavity, and in addition has four elongated 
steam ports in its face. The two outer and one of the 
intermediate ports communicate with two cored pas¬ 
sages extending longitudinally in the valve and serve 
to make the proper connection between the high and 
low-pressure cylinders during the expansion of steam 
from one to the other. The remaining port controls 
the admission of steam to the high-pressure cylinder. 
The arrangement of the ports is such as to have a bal¬ 
ancing tendency to the slide valve, thereby acting as a 
preventative of uneven wear of the valve face and 
seat. The cavity governs the exhaust from the low- 
pressure cylinder to the atmosphere. 

The valve seat has five ports. Of these the two 
back ones lead to the'bottom and top ends respectively 
of the high-pressure cylinder; the first and third ports 
to top and bottom ends of the low-pressure cylinder and 
the second port to the exhaust. Figs. 2 and 3 are dia¬ 
grammatic views of the 8^2-inch Cross-Compound 
Pump, in up and down stroke, the ports and passages 


338 


ITS USE AND ABUSE 



Fig. 2.—Cross Compound Pump, Up-Stroke, High Pressure 

Steam Side. 























































































































































































































MODERN AIR-BRAKE PRACTICE 


33 *; 


being arranged to clearly indicate the passage of steam 
through them. 

While steam is being admitted to the bottom end 
of the high-pressure cylinder, carrying its piston up¬ 
ward, the main slide-valve cavity opens the bottom 
end of the low-pressure cylinder to the exhaust and at 
the same moment its cored passages connect the top 
end of the high and low-pressure cylinders, thus ex¬ 
panding the steam from above the high-pressure piston 
to the top end of the low-pressure cylinder (moving the 
piston of the latter downward). During this time free 
air is being taken into the bottom end of the low- 
pressure air cylinder, while that in the top end is 
being compressed into the high-pressure cylinder. Dur¬ 
ing the piston stroke this intermediate pressure is 
being built up from atmosphere to about 40 pounds, 
a result of compressing the air from the large into the 
small air cylinder, a similar increase obviously taking 
place above the high-pressure air piston and which 
exerts a downward force on that piston the same as 
does the steam above the low-pressure steam piston. 
On the opposite or lower side of the high-pressure air 
piston, the intermediate air under compression to the 
main reservoir is exerting a resistance equal to the 
area of the piston plus the main reservoir pressure 
and which is greatly less than the combined steam 
and air pressures on top of their respective pistons. 

When the pump mechanism is reversed, the action 
is simply a repetition of that above described. 

That cylinder packing-ring leakage is considerably 


340 


ITS USE AND ABUSE 



40 3B 

Pig. 3.—Cross Compound Pump, Down-Stroke, High Pressure 

Steam Side. 


























































































































































































MODERN AIR-BRAKE PRACTICE 


341 


reduced as a result of compounding is apparent. With 
simple or duplex pumps, in both the steam and air 
cylinders, one side of their respective pistons is ex¬ 
posed to atmospheric pressure. With the compound 
pump, while steam is exerting its force on one side of 
the high-pressure piston, the other side is subjected to 
such pressure as obtains from a restricted exhaust and 
expansion into the low-pressure cylinder. In this low- 
pressure cylinder, while the exhaust side of the piston 
is exposed to the atmosphere, the maximum steam 
pressure on the opposite side of the piston is, as the 
name implies, comparatively low, and which reduces 
packing-ring leakage accordingly. 

As already pointed out the pressure in the low- 
pressure air cylinder never exceeds 40 pounds, and as 
it is compressed into the high-pressure cylinder, the 
building up of this intermediate pressure in the latter 
cylinder takes place at the same time that the high 
pressure is being built up and discharged to the main 
reservoir on the opposite side of the piston. 

Thus the tendency of packing-ring leakage is largely 
reduced in all cylinders, a result of less differential 
pressure on opposite sides of .the pistons and which 
cannot be provided for in simple or duplex pumps. 

Another factor contributing to pump capacity is the 
low maximum pressure obtained in the low-pressure 
air cylinder. As this pressure does not exceed 40 
pounds, the air occupying the clearance space when 
the piston starts on its return stroke, quickly expands 
down to atmosphere, permitting the taking in of free 


342 


ITS USE AND ABUSE 


air more promptly and with much less piston move¬ 
ment than is possible when main-reservoir pressure 
must expand to that of the atmosphere. 

This condition also permits the high-pressure steam 
and the low-pressure air pistons to always make their 
intended traverse, insuring full movement of the valve 
gear regardless of high or low main-reservoir pressure. 

As to the high-pressure air piston, it is of little im¬ 
portance whether it varies in its stroke or not, as it 
can in no wise interfere with the valve gear travel or 
govern the quantity of free air taken into the pump. 
Therefore, its action is immaterial so long as it forces 
into the main reservoir all the air it receives from the 
low-pressure cylinder. 

With 200 pounds steam pressure and full throttle, 
the pump working against a main-reservoir pressure of 
130 pounds, the piston cycles are about 65 per minute; 
with the same steam pressure working against 70 
pounds main-reservoir pressure, about 81 cycles per 
minute. With 200 pounds steam pressure and pump¬ 
ing main-reservoir pressure from 30 to 70 pounds, the 
piston makes about 82^ cycles per minute. Thus with 
the possibility of “racing" eliminated, the compound 
pump is in a great measure protected from wear and 
tear, something which cannot but materially reduce the 
cost of maintenance. 

It is also worthy of note that this type of pump is 
less susceptible to heating than those of the duplex 
type, which take free air into both the air cylinders. 
To clearly show the comparative efficiency and econ- 


MODERN AIR-BRAKE PRACTICE 


343 


omy of the compound as compared to both simple and 
duplex pumps, the following table is given: 


Type of Pump. 

Steam pres¬ 
sure, pounds. 

Constant main 
res. pressure. 

Cu. ft. free 
air per 
minute. 

Steam con¬ 
sumption per 
100 cu. ft. free 
air. 

9%-inch 

200 

130 

39. 

60. 

11 -inch 

200 

130 

58. 

58. 

Tandem 

200 

130 

75. 

25.50 

N. Y. No. 5 

200 

130 

93.56 

40.38 

8 ^ 2 -inch C C 

200 

130 

131.04 

19.65 


This table is presented with the belief that it will 
prove interesting, particularly the comparison of the 
&y 2 -inch cross compound with the well-known g l / 2 - 
inch pump. 

From an analysis of the figures, the compound has 
an air-compressing capacity three and one-half times 
greater than that of the 9^-inch pump, and is capable 
of compressing the same volume of air with a steam 
consumption one-third that of the smaller pump. It 
may even be further stated that the performance of 
other pumps given in the table, when compared to that 
of the &y 2 -inch cross compound, indicates the latter as 
a most useful and important contribution to the brak¬ 
ing art, it having the essential qualifications to meet 
demands such as are being earnestly sought in con¬ 
ducting modern railway operation. 

















INDEX 


Mechanical Examinations: PAGE 

First year. 6 

Second year. 23 

Third year. 39 

Evolution of the locomotive: 

Historical sketch. 97 

Advance of American locomotives.103 

Setting locomotive valves. 106 

Throw of eccentric.112 

Direct and indirect motion.113 

Tables of link motion.115 

Boiler parts.153 

Area of exhaust port. 155 

Area of cylinder. ..156 

Areas of safety valves.156 

Locating blows.157 

Train resistance.*.159 

Steam temperature and volume.164 

Making a timetable .167 

Dont’s .170 

Economy rules: 

Rules for firing.180 

Rules for boiler feeding.182 

Rules for use of steam.183 

Fuel-oil: 

Fuel-oil for locomotives.187 

Advantages of fuel-oil.188 

i 


























11 


INDEX. 


Oil-burning locomotives: 

How constructed, fired and operated. 

The burner or atomizer. 

The heater box. 

Cab appliances. 

Cleaning flues—sand funnel. 

The fuel-oil problem. 

Firing liquid fuel. 1 . 

General rules for firing and operating an oil- 

O 1 O 

burner . 

Dont’s ..*. 

Putting out fires. 

Prevention of smoke. 

Causes of failure. 

A few pointers. 

Locomotive parts alphabetically arranged. 

Appendixes: 

Recent progress in air-brake practice. 

New York B 2-HS equipment. 

The B-2 brake valve. 

Duplex pressure controller. 

Accelerator valve.. 

Straight air reducing valve. 

High speed controller. 

Hollow arch for locomotives. 

Fuel combustion. 

Westinghouse compound air-pump. 


PAGE 

195 
197 
208 
2:8 
208 
211 
217 


___ 





2 34 


24 1 

2-1 

w 

2 57 

^3 

260 

"> — -> 
-/ - 

2 73 

2S1 

33i 


























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MODERN LOCOMOTIVE 

ENGINEERING Edition 



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